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FBOIME THE 



SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY, 



TBAlf SMITTING THE 



Information required by a resolution of the House of Representatives, of May 11> 1826, 



IJf EBLATIOJf TO THE 



GROWTH AlVD MANUFACTURE OF SILK, 



ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE UNION. 



.••^•;, a-A 



February 7, 1828. 

Communicated to the House of Representatives — Referred to the Committee on 

Agriculture, of tliat House. 



April 21, 1828. 
Printed by order of the Senate of the United States. 



Y 

WASHINGTON: ^ 



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PRINTED BY DUFF GREEN. 
1828. 



C 175 J 



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IN SENATE OP THE UNITED STATES. 
April 21, 1828. 



Resolved, That 2000 copies of the reports of the Secretary of the 
Treasury, communicated to the House of Representatives at the pre- 
sent session of Congress, relative to the culture of the White Mulber- 
ry tree and the manufacture of Silk, be printed for the use of the 
Sen^e» 



^ 




9^ 



3 [ 175 3 



I 

Treasury Department, 

February 5, 1828. 

Sir: In obedience to a resolution of the House of Representatives^ 
passed on the eleventh of May, 1826, directing that "the Secretary of 
the Treasury cause to be prepared a well-digested Manual, containing 
the best practical information that can be collected on the growth and 
manufacture of silk, adapted to the different parts of the Union, and con- 
taining such facts and observations, in relation to the growth and man- 
ufacture of silk in other countries, as may be useful," I have the honor 
to transmit to the House the accompany!'") ri rep-'^rt. 

This report, by an additional clause of tjie resolution, ought to have 
been made at the session immediately succeeding that at which the 
resolution passed; but the interval was found to be too short to ren- 
der this practicable. In order to procure the materials from which 
alone the Manual could be adequately prepared, it became necessary 
to institute a correspondence co-extensive with the Union, and to seek 
additional light in relation to the subject from several countries abroad. 
The returns to inquiries thus instituted by the Department, had not 
even been received, except in part, during the interval above-mentioned, 
although no time had been lost in instituting them. The work has since 
proceeded with as much expedition as was believed to comport with 
the care due to its preparation; which, amongst other things, included 
plates, for the better illustration of some parts of the machinery used in 
manufacturing silk. These explanations, it is hoped, may be received 
as satisfactory. 

I have the honor to remain. 

With high consideration and respect, 
Your obedient servant, 

RICHARD RUSH. 
The Honorable the Speaker 

of the House of Representatives U, S. 



/ 



C 175 ] 



House op Representatives, 

December 29, 1825. 
On motion of Mr. Miner, 

Resolved, That the Committee on Agriculture be instructed to in- 
quire whether the cultivation of the mulberry tree, and the breeding of 
silk worms, for the purpose of producing silk, be a subject worthy of 
legislative attention; and should they think it to be so, that they ob^ 
tain such information as may be in their power, respecting the kind of 
mulberry tree most preferred, the best soil, climate, and mode of cul- 
tivation, the probable valueof the culture, taking into view the capital 
employed, the labor, and the product, together with such facts and opin- 
ions as they may think useful and proper. 

Resolved, That the same Committee inquire whether any Legisla- 
tive provisions are necessary or proper to promote the production of 
silk. 



House of Representatives, 

May 2, 1826. 

Mr. Van Rensselaer, from the Committee on Agriculture, to which 
the subject had been referred, made the following 

REPORT: 

The Committee on Agriculture, to whom was referred the resolution 
of Mr. Miner, to inquire whether the cultivation of the mulberry 
tree and the breeding of silkworms, for the purpose of producing 
silk, be a subject worthy of legislative attention ; and should they 
think it to be so, that they obtain such information as may be in 
their power respecting the kind of mulberry most preferred, the 
best soil, climate, and mode of cultivation, the probable value of the 
culture, taking into view the capital employed, the labor, and the 
product, together with such facts and opinions as they may think 
useful and proper; 

REPORT: 

That they have examined the subject attentively, and have taken 
such steps as they thought best calculated to obtain information which 
might be useful and lead to satisfactory conclusions. 

The facts developed in the course of their inquiries, tend to place 
the subject in an important point of view. It is an interesting fact, that 
the mulberry tree grows indigenously throughout the United StatCvS, 
and that silk may be raised with facility from the Southern to the 
Northern boundary of the Union. Formerly, considerable quantities 
of silk were produced in Georgia. In 1760 more than twenty thousand 
pounds of cocoons were exported from thence to England. The produc- 



5 C 175 ] 

tion of the article was suspended, not from any difficulty experienced 
in the process, but from causes connected with the Revolution. Mea- 
sures have recently been adopted at Savannah, with a view to the re- 
newal of the cultivation of the mulberry tree and breeding the silk- 
worm. In Kentucky, the Committee learn that sewing silk is now 
produced in considerable quantities, and of excellent quality. Many 
years ago the attention of public spirited individuals in Pennsylvania 
was turned to the production of silk. The Persian mulberry was in- 
troduced into Belhlehem, Pennsylvania, by Bishop Ettwein, where it 
flourished and stiii flourishes. Silk was produced without difficulty. 
In Chester and other of the southern counties of that State, the experi- 
ment was also made v/ith success. The great demand and >high price 
of bread stuffis, owing to the wars growing out of the French revoiti- 
tion, rendered the cultivation of grain so profitable for manj^ years, 
that the mulberry was neglected. In 1779 two hundred pounds of sew- 
ing silk were made in the town of Mansfield, in Connecticut; and in 
1810, according to the report of the marshal who took the census, the 
i'"a]ue of silk produced in Windham county was estimated at ^27,373. 
The Committee learn that the production of silk is still attended to and 
foimd profitable. Some beautiful specimens of sewing silk, the pro- 
duction of that State, have been exhibited to the Committee. Of the 
fact, therefore, that the United States can produce s"lk for its own con- 
sumption, and even for exportation to the extent of foreign demand, 
there appears no reason to doubt. There are few persons, the Com- 
mittee believe, even the most intelligent of our citizens, (who have 
not turned their attention particularly to the subject,) who will not be 
surprise i at the view presented by the following official statement of 
the value of silks imported into the United States the last five years: 

Statement of the value of silk goods imported and exported in the 
years 1821 to 1825, inclusive. 

Years. Imported. Exported. 

1821 - - ^4,486,924 - - ^1,057,233 

1822 - - 6.480,928 - - 1,016,262 

1823 - - 6,713,771 - - 1,512,449 

1824 - - 7,203,344 - - 1,816,325 

1825 - - 10,271,527 - - 2,565,742 



^35,156,494 ^7,968,011 



What a bounty is paid by us to support the agriculturist and manu- 
focturer of other nations, on articles which our country, with a few 
years of care, might supply! How important it is that the agriculturist 
should turn his attention to new objects of production, is very fully 
shown by the circumstance of the diminished and diminishing demand 
of bread stuffs abroad. 

In 1817, the exports of bread stuffs amounted to ^20,374,000 

In 1818, 15,388,000 

In 1824, 6,799,246 

In 1825,, 5.417,997 



[ 175 ] 6 

An importation often millions of dollars of silk — an export of five 
millions of bread stuffs! The facts speak the importance of the subject^ 
and indicate the necessity that exists of awakening the slumbering agri- 
cultural resources of our country, by introducing new and profitable 
articles of production. Knowledge is power, in agriculture, no less 
than in politics; information is capital, and the means of valuable im- 
provement. The Committee conceive that the first and most import- 
ant measure to be taken, is to acquire and circulate clear, distinct, and 
precise information on these points: the relative value of the cultiva- 
tion of the mulberry, and the production of silk, compared with other 
agricultural productions in the different sections of the Union, capital 
and labor being considered. The kind of mulberry best suited to the 
object; the most advantageous mode of cultivation; the most approved 
manner of managing the silkworm, and an explanation of the process 
till the article is ready for market. The Committee incline to the opin- 
ion that the best mode of raising silk will be for every farmer and plant- 
er to appropriate a small portion of ground, as for a fruit orchard, for 
raising the mulberry tree, calculating to produce as many worms as his 
own family will enable him to manage without increasing his expenses, 
and without permitting it, until the experiment shall have been fully 
tried, to interfere with the regular course of his usual pursuits. A sin- 
gle acre planted with the mulberry will produce from 500 to 600 
pounds raw silk, the value of which to the individual would richly 
compensate for the capital and labor employed^ and the aggregate to 
the country be of great importance. 

The fact is worthy of notice, that, notwithstanding the high price of 
land in Ireland, where a year's rent of land exceeds the price of the 
soil in many parts of our country, yet so valuable is the mulberry con- 
sidered, that importations of trees from the Mediterranean have been 
made during the last year, for the purpose of producing silk. Your 
Committee addressed inquiries to several intelligent gentlemen who 
were presumed competent to give them information upon the subject ; 
and among the papers received in reply, they beg leave to present to 
the particular attention of the House a valuable memoir, replete with 
interesting facts and useful information, from Edmund C. Genet, Esq. 
and also several communications from other gentlemen, to whose at- 
tention the Committee acknowledge their obligations. As the result 
of these inquiries, believing that knowledge on the subject is of the 
first importance, the Committee submit the following resolution; 

Resolved, That the Secretary of the Treasury cause to be prepared 
a well-digested Manual, containing the best practical information that 
can be collected on the growth and manufacture of silk, adapted to the 
different parts of the Union, containing such factsand observations in re- 
lation to the growth and manufacture of silk, in other countries, ne may 
be useful, and that the same be laid before Congress at the commence- 
ment of their next session. 



[ 175 ] 



HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, 

February 11, 1828. 

Mr. Van Rensselaer, from the Committee on Agriculture, to which 
the subject had been referred, made the following 

REPORT: 

The Committee on Agriculture, to which was referred the report of 
the Secretary of the Treasury, made in pursuance of a resolution of the 
House of Representatives, passed the eleventh of May, 1826, directing 
the Secretary to prepare a well-digested Manual on the growth and 
manufacture of silk, have agreed to the following resolution, which they 
have instructed their Chairman to submit to the House: 

Resolved^ That six thousand copies of said Manual and Report be 
printed for the use of the House. 



C 175 ] S 



A MANUAL 

ON THE CULTURE OF SILK, AND ITS MANUFACTURE, 

Prepared under the instructions and superintendence of the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury, in compliance with a resolution of the House of 
Representatives of the United States, introduced by the bionorable 
Charles Miner, of Pennsylvania, and adopted on the eleventh of May, 
1826, in the following words, viz: 

Resolved, That the Secretary of the Treasury cause to be prepared 
a well-digested Manual, containing the best practical information 
that can be collected, on the growth and manufacture of silk, adapted 
to the different parts of the Union, containing such facts an-i observa- 
tions, in relation to the growth and manufacture of siik in other coun- 
tries, as may be useful, and that the same be laid before Congress at 
the commencement of their next session. 



^J [ 175 ] 

The foilowing queries were propounded by the Secretary of the 
Treasury, to the various persons in the United States, to ivhom 
a copy of the Resolution of the House of Representatives was 
transmitted. 

1. What efforts have been made in the State of , if any, 

and at what periods of time, to raise silk ? 

2. Whence was the silkworm obtained ? Is this insect a native 

of — — , and, if so, in what respects does it differ, if any, from 

the oriental or foreign silkworm? Are there any varieties of this insect 
known in ? Please to describe whatever kinds there may be. 

3. Does the mulberry flourish in , in its different varieties; 

what soil suits it best; is the white mulberry an indigenous tree? If 
not, has it been found to thrive as well in the United States as the red 
and black mulberry? Which of the latter is indigenous, or are both? 

4. Does the silkworm feed as well upon the red and black mulber- 
ry as upon the white ? Is there any other leaf or plant known in 
this country upon which it does feed; and, above all, will it yield silk 
of equal quality when fed upon any other leaf or food, as upon that of 
the white mulberry? 

5. Be pleased to state the best methods of raising and multiplying 
the several species of the mulberry tree; how it is propagated; how 
old it should be before transplanting; what particular modes of treating 
it are required; the age at which it should begin to furnish food for the 
worm; whence trees or cuttings can be obtained for transplantation; 
the price per hundred; how many trees should be planted on an acre; 
and would it, or would it not, be profitable to cultivate the mulberry, 
for the purpose of feeding the worm, in the form of a bush or shrub ? 

6. What quantity of raw silk ought to be produced from an acre of 
full-grown mulberry trees, planted and reared in the best manner? 
How many silkworms are required to produce a pound of raw silk ? 
What quantity of raw silk can be produced from an acre of mulberr}-- 
trees, by other modes of cultivation than the full-grown tree ? 

7. Be pleased to state, as much in detail as may be in your power, 
the methods of treating the silkworm, with a view to raising the best 
silk, and in the greatest quantity; embracing, particularly, the habits of 
the insect, as to appetite, cleanliness, position, or accommodations, 
whilst the cocoon is forming; the species of twig or branch on which 
it is best that it should be spun; temperature, and degree of light most 
favorable to the insect; and all other circumstances which may affect 
its health and strength, and its capacity to yield a perfect cocoon; al- 
so, a description of the process of forming the silk by the insect until 
the cocoon is completed; the best modes of treating the cocoon, and of 
obtaining the silk; and how far the labor of females, children, and old 
men, may be usefully employed in the culture of silk ? 

8. What difference, if any, exists between Ihe Chinese and Italian 
or Spanish worm ; which country is reputed to produce the best insect, 
and what particular part of the country ? 

9. Does the climate of admit of raising silk with full advan- 
tage in the open air; or is it best that the insect should always be housed' 



[ ITA J 10 

If tlic latter, vvlial size and fornl of building ur apartment is beat 
fitted to its operations ? If the silk be raised in the open cur, is any 
.•ihelter, and of what kind required, as well from the rays of the sun as 
from wet, and to protect the insects from birds and other animals that 
prey upon them ? 

10. Is there reason to suppose that, in some parts of the United 
States, the climate may admit of more than one crop of silk being raised 
from the silkworm, in the course of the year, as in Asia ? How 
will this inquiry apply to — ? 

11. Have lightning and thunder been found to affect the silkworm 
in our climate, and how far, if at all ? Has any insect of our climate, 
or animal of any kind, been found to prey upon, or injure it, beyond 
those that are known to do so in other climates ? 

12. What is the greatest quantity of silk that has been raised 

in the State of , in- any one year; into what articles or forms 

has it been manufactured; and have the manufactured articles been 
consumed at home or sent abroad, and where; where has th6"raw silk, 
been sent when ijiot wrougbrt into manufactures ? 

13. AVhat prices have the raw or manufactured silks commanded in 
the market of the United States, as compared with similar articles im- 
ported from Europe, China, or the East Indies ? What progress has 
been made in the drawing, spinning, and twisting of sevying silk in 

any part of ? Have its strength and evenness been equal to the 

French, English, or Italian sewing silk? How have we succeeded in 
the coloring or dying ? Ail information on this head will be acceptable. 

14. Will you be pleased to describe, with as much particularity as 
may be, the machinery most approved for winding off the silk from 
the cocoon; for forming it into organzine or thrown,silk; and for man- 
ufacturing silk into all its different forms, (includihg velvets,) whether 
for clothing, furniture, or any other purpose ? If withiA youf power 
and convenience to add a sketch or drawing, of any or all of the above 
machinery, it Would be acceptable. 

17. Describe the difference in the quality of the silk produced from 
all the different varieties of the silkworm, and annex, if in your power, 
a drawing (colored) of all the varieties of this insect, in its moth 
and other states. Is the insect brought from abroad supposed to de- 
generate in the United States, and if so, to what causes is it imputed, 
and how are they best to be obviated ? What are the jDroper rules to 
be observed in the choice of eggs, in the choice of cocoons for seed, and 
in the choice of the insect for laying- eggs ? 

16. If silk has been raised at any periods heretofore in ,'bul 

not at present, what are supposed to be the causes that have led to its 
discontinuance ? ^ 

17. Please to state any other facts or circumstances that may bear 
upon the objects or spirit of the resolution above referred to, of the 
House of Representatives of the United States, though not specially 
"omprehended under any of the foregoing inquiries. 

RICHARD RUSH. 

Tbeasury Department. 29i/i July. 1S26. 



>i r i7". ) 



PREFACE. 



Ill considering the subject of the culture of silk, it was the hrst in- 
tention of the writer of this Manual to compose an entire treatise in 
his own language; and some progress in the collection of materials 
for it was made; when, upon a careful perusal of the work by Count 
Dandolo, of Italy, it was found to embrace every part of the art of 
rearing silkworms, so much more fully than any of the numerous 
treatises, in English or French, which the writer had read, and ex- 
hibited, throughout, such marks of method, so much pains, intelli- 
gence, and attention, such scrupulous accuracy, in all his proceed- 
ings and directions, that it was deemed most adviseable*to make it the 
basis of the intended Manual. The author wrote from ample expe- 
rience in the art upon whicl^he undertook to instruct others; and it 
appears from a late traveller,* and writers on silkworms, that his plan 
for their treatment has generally been substituted for those formerly 
adopted in Italy and France. Dandolo's work has, therefore, been 
earefully abridged; a measure rendered necessary from its diffuse 
nature, and the many details and particulars of minute inquiries into 
circumstances connected with the silk culture giyen therein, but which 
do Hot lead to any profitable result. These are omitted, and nothing 
inserted but that which is purely practical. Having the use of the 
original work in Italian, and the French translation, from which the 
English version was made, the errors of the latter were corrected. 

The directions and plans of this experienced author, refer to a 
large establishment of five ounces of eggs, but the intelligent culti- 
vator will readily apply them to a scale of any size; in all cases, the 
practical results will be similar. 

To the directions and observations of Dandolo, many others arc 
added, which were derived from an extensive correspondence insti- 
tuted by the Secretary of the Treasury, in all parts of the Union, on 
the subject matter of the riesolution of the House of Representatives, 
as well as from information taken from the most vakiable and recent 
publications obtained by the Secretary, from different parts of Europe, 
To these abundant sources of knowledge, were added others, which 
the writer himself was able to command; among these was a free 
access, during the past year, to a large establishment, conducted upon 
the plan pointed out by Count Dandolo. To the practical i)art are 
prefixed a short history, of silk in ancient times; an account of the 
former and present state of its culture in North America; and the 
?iatural history of the silkworm. 

* Mr. ,T. Mnrray — Treatise on Silkworm^, Edinburgh, 182fi. 



[ 175 ] m 

On the subject of the manufacture of silk, all the information has 
been given which it was possible to obtain from books and other 
sources. It is now known, that very great improvements in the ma- 
chinery for the preparation of the raw material, have been recently 
made; but an account of some of them could not be obtained sujSi- 
ciently definite to authorize their insertion. Fanshaw's improvement,* 
of which a copy has been taken from a recent English publication, is 
spoken of in the highest terms by ** the trade. '* To this are added, 
plates and descriptions of a new tramming machine, and of two looms, 
both of which received premiums from the London Society for the Encou- 
ragement of Arts: one of them shows the improvements it contains, in 
connexion with the whole apparatus for weaving silk, as now employed 
in Spitalfields. The whole machinery for the manufacture of silk, 
is given in the French Encyclopaedia, published at the commence- 
ment and during the early part of their revolution, and is contained 
in one hundred and thirty-one quarto plates, and upwards of four hun- 
dred figures, some of which occupy a whole page: the letter press 
iills one hundred and seventy-two pages. Much of this machinery is 
now laid aside for others of a more simple nature; but the work may 
still be consulted with advantage by those who intend to engage in 
the business, from the minute accuracy of the figures of those parts 
which are still retained. It would have been impossible to copy these 
plates; and even the insertion of all the recent patents and improve- 
ments would have been inconsistent with the object of this Manual. 
They have, therefore, in part, been omitted, and references made to 
them, which manufacturers may find it their interest to consult. 

The subject of dying silk, although not expressly mentioned, was 
nevertheless considered as included in the spirit of the resolution of 
the House of Representatives. Accordingly, directions to prepare 
the raw material for various tints, and observations connected with 
the art, with receipts for different colors, have been given. It is hoped 
they will be found useful, as great pains were taken to collect and 
select them from the latest and most approved writers. Care has 
been taken to avoid repeating what has been said by Dr. Cooper, in 
his treatise on dying, as that work is to be easily procured. 

Upon the whole, the compiler can truly say, that he has endeavored 
to accomplish the task with which he has been charged, to the best of 
his abilities, and with all the zeal which a firm conviction of the im- 
portance of the silk culture could inspire. 

* For spinning, doubling", and twisting', or throwing silk. London Journal of 
Arts and Sciences, for July, 1827. 



13 f 175 3 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Page. 

History of Silk, - - - - ., . . -17 

" ** in the United States, - - - - - - 21 

Natural Hisiory of the Silkworm, - - - . , _ - 2r 

CHAPTER H. 



CHAPTER VHL 



o'o 



Varieties in Silkworms, ------>. 

Of rearing" two or more crops in one season, in the United States, - o6 

CHAPTER HI. 

Of other Caterpillars producing Silk, ----.. 39 
Of the Bughy or Tusseh, and Arrindy silkworms of India, - .40 

Of the Chinese worms, which do not spin cocoons, but produce threads 

Sind attach them to trees. ---.-- 41 
Of the South American silkworms, _ . . - . 4^ 

Of the native North American silkworms, - - - - 42 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of Mulberry trees, -------.42 

1. Of the native red mulberry, and its varieties, - - - - 43 

2. Of the white mulberry tree, and its culture and varieties,- - 44 

3. On the proportion of leaves to an acre, and to silk produced from 

them; superiority of the leaves of seedling trees; cautions on picking 
leaves, - - -- - - - -51 

4. On mulberry hedges, - - - - - - - 52 

CHAPTER V- 

Of the Laboratory, - - - - - - --54 

Description and cut of the Rev. Mr. Swayne's rearing frames, - ' - 56 

CHAPTER VI. 

The art of rearing Silkworms: 

1. Of the care necessary previously to the hatching, - - -57 

2. Utility of a thermometer to fix the temperature of the room, - - 58 

3. Of the hot-house, and utensils required, - - - - 59 

4. Of the hatching of the silkworms* eggs, - - - - 61 

CHAPTER VII. 

Of the small apartment in which the new hatched tuoms are to be received, - 68 
Of their removal into the laboratory, or elsewhere, • - - - 69 



Of the rearing of Silkworms in the four first ages, ^ ~ ■■ 7i 

1. Of rearing silkworms in the first age, - - - - 75 

2. •* *' second age, , » - 78 

3 te tc tliird age, - - - - 82 

4 '' *' fourth age, - » «'. 



C 175 ] 14 

CHAPTER IX. 

Page. 
Of rcarins; SiUcwdrms m ihejifth agc^ until they prepare, io form their cocoon f, ■ 90 

CHAPTER X. 

Of rearing Silkworms until the cocoon is perfected, • - - - 97 

1. First preparation of the hedge, or espaher, - - - - 98 

2. Cleaning of the hui'dles, and of the preparation for the rising of the 

silkworms, - - - - -- - -99 

3. Separation of the silkworms which will not rise? last cleaning of the 

hurdles, - 102 

4. Care of the laboratory, until the silkworm has completed its fifth age, 102 

5. Quantity of vapor emitted by silkworms. - - - - 104 

CHAPTER XI. 

Of the sixth age of Silkworms^ or of the Chrysalis: 

1. Gathering and preservation of the cocoons, . - -. . 105 

2, Daily loss in weight of cocoons^ •- - - - - 108 

CHAPTER XIL 

Birth and coupling of the ?noths; laying of the eggs, and their prcservationy - 108 

CHAPTER XIII. 

General view of all the facts stated in this ivork, immediately connected with the 
art of cultivating Silkworms: 

1. Number of e^^= of different varieties of silkworms to the ounce, - 113 

2. Space occupied by silkworms, from one ounce of eggs, in different 

ages, - - - - - _. - . 113 

Quantities of leaves consumed by them in different ages, - - 114 

3 . Facts relative to the cocoons containing the healthy chrysalides; diseased 

and dead chrysalides, - - - - - -114 

4. Facts relative to the production of eggs, - - - - 115 

5. Quantities of silk yielded by various parcels of cocoons, - - 116 

6. Weights of cocoons; produce of cocoons and of silk from an ouHceof 

eggs, * - - - - - - - - 117 

7. Proportion of eggs to cocoons, - - - - -118 

8. Proportion of different qualities of cocoons, in various parcels, before 

and after being baked, _.---- 119 

Abstract and condensed view of the mode of rearing Silkiuorms, - - 120 

Means of producing early food for silkworms, and on the advantages of 

budding mulberry trees, - - - - - - 125 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Diseases of Silkworms: 

1. Diseases from defect of eggs, ------ 125 

2. *' mismanagement of eggs, . - . , 126 

3. *' bad air of the district m which silkworms are reared, - 126 

4. *' . impurity in the air of the laboratory, ... 127 

5. On purifying the air of a laboratory by acid fumigations, - - 127 

6. Of the Hygrometer, a simple one described, with a cut, - - 129 

7. Diseases from want of room for the worms, ... - 130 

8. *' quality and quantity of food, . - - . 130 
y. " change of food, , . . - . 131 

10. *' peculiar constitution of the air, - - 132 

11, " sudden changes of temperature, l"^ 



15 t 1^^ J 



Fdrticuiar (U&ta^ts. Page- 

1. The Passis, - - ^ - ^ , - 133 

2. The Lusette, or Ciairette, ---.,. 134. 

3. The Yellows, ---...-- 134- 

4. The Muscardine, .--_._. I35 

5. The Tripes, or Mort Blanc, .-.--. 135 

CHAPTER XV. 

Preparations for reeling Silk: 

1. How to take off the flos from the cocoons, ... - 135 

2. Separation of the various qualities of cocoons, . , , 136 

3. On heating' water for reeling by steam, with a cut, - - - 138 

4. Utility of the thermometer to ascertain the heat of the water, - 139 

5. On killing the chrysalis in the cocoons, by baking and steaming, 139, 141 

6. Of royal, perforated cocoons, and scufflons, - - - - 142 
Mode of reeling silk from the best cocoons , - - - - - 142 
Of disbanding the silk from the reel, tying it in skeins, preparation of the silk 

foruscy - . ■ . - - .- - . 150 

Doubling machine, with a cut, ------- 151 

Of the preparation of the waste silk, spinning inferior qualities, - - 152-3 

" of the silk to make organzine, . , „ . 151-2 

Notice of the warping machine, - - - - - 153 
Explanation of the plates: 

1. Silk reel of Piedmont, and various utensils for rearing silkworms, - 155-6 

2. Indigo cradle, -------- I57 

3. Frames of split rattans to feed worms on, - - _ . 157- 

4. SholPs improved silk-loom, ------ 157" 

5. Winding reel, - - - - - - - - 158 

6. Throwsting machine, to make organzine silk, - - - 159 

7. Shenton's Engine for tramming silk, - - - - - 161 

8. Richard's improvement in the silk weaver's* draw-boy, :; - 164 

9. Loom for weaving figured silk, _ . _ . . 155 
Notices of various machines, and i-ecent improvements in Silk machinery: 

1. Thompson's improved ribbon loom; R'ench ribbon looms, - - 172 

2. Jacquart's loom, ---..-. I73 

3. Le Bran's loom, ._..,.. iy^ 

4. English patents for improvements in Silk machinery, - - - 174 

5. De Bergue's power loom, - - - - - - 175 

6. Kendall's domestic power loom, . . _ - _ 175 

7. Fanshaw's apparatus for spinning, doubling, and twisting, or throwing" 

silk, with a cut, - - - - - - -176 

8. Sadler's improved power loom, . - - - . \';^y 

9. American winding, doubling, and twisting apparatus, - - - 178 

10. Other recent improvementfj in silk weaving, . - - - 178 

11. Method of preventing the watering of silk, without the use of a knee 

roll, - - - - - - - - - 179 

Extracts from minutes of evidence before the House of Commons, on the Silk 

trade and Silk manufacture, - - - - - -180 

Appendix on dying Silk, - - - - - - - 182 

Translation from a German treatise on dying Silk, - - - '20^ 



[175 3 1« 



LIST OF PLATES. 



Plate 1, %. 1. Silk reel of Piedmont. 

2. Arrangement of feeding- frames for silkworms. 

3. A double knife to chop mulberry leaves. 

4. Box to hold silk moths, when not coupling". 

5. Tressel to be covered with cloth, for silk moths to lay G^ggs on. 

6. Rope frame, to hold the cloth or paper containing silkworm eggs^ 

when not wanted. 

7. Hook to hft the worms. 

Plate 2,fig. 1,2. Indigo cradle. 

3. Rattan slides or frames for silkworms. 

4. Frames for silkworms to spin their cocoons, instead of bushes or 

twigs. 

5. ShoU's improved silk loom. 

Plate 3, fig. 1. Reel to wind skeins of silk on bobbins. 

2. Throwsting machine. 

3. A single spindle of a throwsting machine. 

Plate 4. Shenton's tramming engine. 

5. Silk loom, exhibiting Richard's improved draw boy, and the Spitalfields 

silk loOTTl" 



17 [ 175 1 



INTRODUCTION. 



HISTORY OF SILK. 

The silkworm, or, more properly, the silk-caterpillar, is a native of 
China. The people resident in the northern part of that country, 
called Seres, having been expelled by the Huns, in the ninety-third 
year of the Christian era, settled in Little Bucharia,* and were, for 
many centuries, the sole cultivators of the precious article, with which 
they supplied the rest of the world. The earliest mention of silk is 
in the translation of the Bible by Jerome, who enumerates it among 
the numerous articles which were imported from Syria by the Phoe- 
nicians, those spirited merchants and skilful manufacturers, who, al- 
though seated in a barren and narrow country, confined on one side 
by the sea, and by a range of mountains on the other, became a great naval 
and commercial power, which, for a very long period, rendered their 
*• merchants princes, and their traffickers the honorable of the earth, "t 
The singular lustre and beauty of silk, and the delicate structure of the 
fabric, could not fail to prove highly attractive to mankind: and hence it 
constituted one of the articles which were brought from China by traders, 
who, in caravans, performed long and toilsome journeys through the 
trackless sands and deserts of Asia, to the different ports of Syria and 
Egypt, which successively became the depots of commerce. For a 
long time, two hundred and forty-three days were consumed in these 
expeditions. Cosmas, himself a trader, speaks of the distance between 
China and Persia, as requiring one hundred and fifty days to perform 
the route. The cities of Turfan and Cashgar, were the rendezvous of 
these caravans. J 

The Seres themselves never left home, being " a gentle race who 
shunned mankind." 

The distance whence the article was brought, and the small quanti- 
ties with which the world was supplied, necessarily caused the price 
to be far beyond the reach of any but the rich; and even when thift 
Roman power extended over half the globe, as then known, this bril- 
liant and ornamental article of dress was scarcely known to them. 
It is probable, that they first became acquainted with its real nature 
from the writings of Dionysius Periegetes, the geographer, who had 

• The identity of Bucharia with the country of the Seres, is estabhshed from tlie 
description of it by Ammianus Marcellinus, a writer of credit in the third centmy. 

f Isaiah xxiii. 8. 

t Ptolemy speaks of Comedre, (the present Cashpar,) as the *« rcceptaculum eo- 
I'lim qui ad Seres nf^g-otii causa profisciuntur. pp7>e's Imaum Montis " Asia, tab, vji. 
.3 ' ' 



C 175 3 18 

been sent, by Augustus to compile an account of the oriental region??, 
and who infornied his countrymen that precious garments were manu- 
factured by the Seres, from threads finer than those of the spider.^ 
Among all tlie articles of elegance belonging to the luxurious Cleopa- 
tra, none seemed to excite their admiration and astonishment, as the 
silk sails of her pleasarc-bargc, in which she visited th':;m at Alexaji- 
dria. For a long time after, it continued to be so scarce and dear, that, 
in the Roman dominions, it was confined to women of fortune. It 
was, moreover, deemed so eileminate an article, as to be unfit for the 
dress of men; and, in the reign of Tiberius, a law was passed, '* that 
no man should dishonor himself by wearing silken garments. ^'t Two 
hundred years subsequent to this date, the use of it constituted one of 
the many opprobrious charges which were made against the character 
of the emperor Elagabulus. Even fifty years after, another emperori 
refused his queen a garment of silk, by reason of the high price it bore 
— its weight in gold. 

For centuries, the Persians enjoyed a monopoly of the trade in silk: 
but, after they were subdued by Alexander, (300 years before Christ,) 
this valuable commodity was brought to Greece, and thence sent to 
Rome. The anxiety of the luxurious people of that nation, to trade 
with those from which the costly article was to be procured, induced 
the Emperor Marcus Antoninus to send ambassadors to negotiate a 
more direct commercial intercourse with their country, than the sub- 
jects of Rome had yet been able to accomplish; and, as the jealousy 
of the Parthians and Persians prevented the passage of all foreigners 
through their kingdoms to Chinn, the ambassadors were obliged to 
proceed by the tedious way of Egypt and India. Another was sent 
in the year 272, which led to more favorable arrangements, and a 
shorter }oute, viz: along the ranges of mountains, now called Hin- 
dopkho, and Cuttore. § But the price of silk, for a long tim.e, con- 
tinued a source of regret, and the article an object of increasing desire 
among the wealthy. Justinian made another attempt, shortly after he 
ascended the throne, to obtain it. He sent Julian as his ambassador 
to the Christipin king of Axuma, in Abyssinia, requesting that, for the 
sake of their common religion, he would assist him in a war with 
Persia, and direct his subjects to purchase silks in India, in order to 
sell them to the Romans, whereby the Axumites would acquire great 
wealth, and the Romans would have the satisfaction of paying their 
gold into the hands of their friends, instead of enriching their Persian 
enemies. Julian also urged the Homcrites in Arabia Felix, then un- 
der the vassalage of Axuma, to the same effect; and promised, on the 
part of the emperor, to purcliase silk from them, if, with their as- 
sistance, he could wrest the silk trade from the Persians, and they be- 
come the medium of intercourse with the country of the Seres. The 
kings of both the countries promised to comply with the emperor'^ 



* Perieg-etes de situ orbls, 6 v. p. 752 



■\ Nc Vcstis Scrica viros focdaret. Tacitus, book 2(1, cliap. o3. 

i Aurelian. Vopiscns in vilam Aurc-liuni, c. 45, libra cniin auri tunc librascvici fiuL 

§ See Kennel's map of the countries between the Ganges a\)cl the Caspian St^a.' 



19 I 175 ] 

j*equest; but neither were able or willing to fulfil their engagements. 
The alleged causes for their non-compliance, were some internal com- 
motions among the Homerites, and the recall of Belisarius, who, with 
an army, to which the Arabian auxiliary troops were joined, protected 
the East from the invasions of the Persians. * This nation, by having 
the command of the land carriage from the country of the Seres, still 
enjoyed almost an exclusive trade with respect to the western world, 
in Indian commodities, but more especially silk, with which it sup- 
plied remote nations at extravagant prices. From this distress, which 
was felt and lamented as a real misfortune by the Senators of the Ro- 
man empire, they were released in a very extraordinary and unex- 
pected manner. The preachers of the Nestorian doctrine, having 
been exiled by the persecuting spirit of the ecclesiastical government 
of Byzantium, fled to India. Their patriarch, w^ho resided in Persia, 
sent missions, and every where established convents and bishoprics. 
Two of his rnonks, who had been employed as missionaries in some of 
the Christian churches, which were established in different parts of In- 
dia, having penetrated into the country of the Seres, liad observed the 
labors of the silkworms, and become acquainted with the art of work- 
ing their production into at variety of elegant fabrics. Aware of the 
anxiety of the Europeans on this subject, they repaired to Constanti- 
nople, and imparted to the emperor Justinian, the secret which had 
hitherto been so well preserved by the Seres, that silk was produced 
by a species of worms, the eggs of which might be transported with 
safety, and propagated in his dominions. By the promise of a great 
reward, they were induced to return, and brought away a quantity of 
the silkworm's eggs, in the hollow of a cane, and conveyed them 
safely to Constantinople, about the year 555. The eggs were hatched 
in the proper season by the warmth of a manure heap, the worms 
were fed with the leaves of tlie mulberry tree, and their race propagated 
under the direction of tlie monks, t The insects thus happily pro- 
duced from this caneful of eggs, as if the little ark of the insect race, 
v/ere the progenitors of all the silkworms of Europe, and the western 
parts of Asia. Vast numbers of these insects were soon reared in dif- 
ferent parts of Greece, particularly in the Peloponnesus. The monks 
having also made themselves masters of the art of manufacturing silk, 
the business was conducted under the auspices of the emperor, and for 
his exclusive benefit: but the imperial monopoly could not long con- 
tinue, and mankind gradually became possessed of the precious insects, 
after the death of Justinian, in the year 565. :]: The people of the 
Peninsula, and of the cities of Athens and Thebes, enjoyed the profit 
of the culture and manufacture of silk, without a European rival, for 
upwards of 400 years; and the Venetians, during the continuance of 
their commercial glory, distributed the products of their industry over 
the western parts of Europe. At length, Roger, the Norman king of 
Sicily, after his return from the second crusade, in order to anticipate 

* Proco))ius, p. 34. 

f The Monks procured the eg-g-s fi-om the colony of tlie Seres, in Little Bucharja. 

i Procopius do Bello Gotliico, lib 12, cap. 17. 



[ 175 ] ^0 

an attack, which the government of Byzantium was preparing against 
him, and to revenge the insult of the imprisonment of his ambassa- 
dors, whom he sent to form a treaty and a matrimonial alliance with 
the Emperor Comnenus, made war upon Greece, in the year 1146, 
with a powerful naval and military force. Corcyra, the present Corfu, 
first yielded to the arms of the invaders, and the surrender of the 
other cities of Greece, and all the Morea, followed in speedy succes- 
sion. The spoils were great. But what peculiarly distinguished this 
war from most others, which have no consequence than the exaltation 
of one individual, the depression of another, and the misery of thou- 
sands, was the capture of a great number of silk weavers, who were 
carried off and settled in Palermo, the capital city of the conqueror. 
By the order of the king, the Grecian prisoners taught his Sicilian 
subjects to raise and feed silkworms, and to weave all the varieties of 
silk stuffs; and so well did they profit by the lessons of their instruc- 
tors, that, in the course of twenty years, the silk manufacturers of 
Sicily were subjects of notice and of praise, by the historians of the 
age.* 

The Saracens had, before this time, obtained the knowledge of the 
various operations of the silk manufacture, and spread it over their 
widely extended dominions. Lisbon and Almeria, the two Saracen 
cities of Spain, were especially famous for their silk fabrics, and the 
islands of Majorca and Ivica paid their tribute to the kings of Arra- 
gon in silks. The Italian States soon after engaged in the culture and 
manufacture of silk, and in the year 1306, this business was so far ad- 
vanced, as to yield a revenue to the State. In France, Louis the XI. 
and his son Charles the VIII established a number of Italian work- 
men at Tours; but it is to Henry IV that France is indebted, for 
placing the culture of silk and its manufacture upon a solid basis. 
Having put an end to the civil wars of the nation, he determined to 
give every possible encouragement to this important branch of indus- 
try, by recommending and enforcing the general planting of mulberry 
trees, and the rearing of silkworms. The merit of Henry, on this 
occasion, is increased by the fact, that his views and measures were in 
direct opposition to the advice of his favorite and w^ise minister. Sully, 
who held the project in little consideration, as appears by his own me- 
moirs, in which he candidly records the discussions which he had 
with the king on the subject. In the year 1455, mention is made of 
a company of silk women in England. In 1504, the manufacture of 
ribbons, laces, and girdles, was so considerable, as to be protected by a 
prohibitory statute. In 1561, Queen Elizobeth was presented with a 
pair of black knit silk stockings, with which she was so well pleased, 
that she never after wore any of another material. James I. was ex- 
tremely solicitous to encourage the silk manufacture, and recommend- 
ed it several times from the throne: and in the year 1608, addressed ii 
long letter on the subject, written with his owm hand, to the Lord 
Lieutenants of every county in the kingdom, to v,hom mulberry 

* Muratori Scriptor, Veter. vi. col. 668 — Macpherson's Annals, vol. 1, p. 322. 



21 [ 175 3 

plants and seeds were sent for distribution. He al^ had a book of 
instructions composed, on the rearing of the trees and the culture of 
silk, to promote the success of his project. The royal wishes do not 
appear to have been seconded by his subjects; but he had the satisfac- 
tion to see the broad silk manufactory introduced in the latter end of 
his reign. The revocation of the edict of Nantes, in the year 1685, 
which drove all the Protestants from France, permanently established 
the business in England; and the erection of the silk throwing mill 
of Sir Thomas Lombe, at Derby, in the year 1719, greatly promoted* 
it, by the rapid preparation of the raw material. 

HISTORY OF SILK IN THE UNITED STATES. 

The culture of silk first commenced in Virginia. Upon the settle- 
ment of that colony, it was deemed an object of the f.rst importance; 
and the attention of the settlers was strongly directed to it by the 
British government, by which silkworm eggs, white mulberry trees, 
and printed instructions, were sent over and distributed. Kine; James 
the First, in the 20th year of his reign, having, doubtless, seen the 
defeat of his plan to encourage the silk culture at home, was induced 
to attempt it in Virginia; and, <^ having understood that the soil 
naturally yieldeth store of excellent mulberries," gave instructions 
to the Earl of Southampton, to urge the cultivation of silk in the 
colony, in preference to tobacco, ''which brings with it many disor- 
ders and inconveniences." In obedience to the command, the Earl 
wrote an express letter on the subject, to the Governor and Council, 
in which he desired them to compel the colonists to plant mulberry 
trees, and also vines. Accordingly, '^ as early as the year 1623, the 
colonial assembly directed the planting of mulberry trees; and in 
1656, another act was passed, in which the culture of silk is described 
as the most profitable commodity for the country; and a penalty of ten 
pounds of tobacco is imposed upon every planter who should fail to 
plant at least ten mulberry trees for every hundred acres of land in 
his possession. In the same year a premium of 4,000 pounds of 
tobacco^ w^as given to a person as an inducement to remain in the 
country, and prosecute the trade in silk; and, in the next year, a pre- 
mium of 10,000 pounds of tobacco was offered to any one who should 
export £200 worth of the raw material of silk. About the same time. 
5,000 pounds of the same article was promised '^ to any one who 
should produce 1,000 pounds of wound silk in one year." The act of 
1656, coercing the planting of the mulberry trees, was repealed, in the 
year 1658, but was revived two years after; and the system of re- 
wards and penalties was steadily pursued until the year 1606, when 
it was determined that all statutory provisions were thereafter unne- 
cessary, as the success of divers persons in the growth of silk, and 
other manufactures, ' 'evidently demonstrated how beneficial the same 

* In the early settlement of Virginia, tobacco was the circulating' medium, thr 
siibstitute for money, as aev/mj silk is, in part at pn^sent in \A'indl)am county, Con- 
necticut . 



[ 175 ] '22. 

would prove/' Three years after, legislative encouragements were 
revived, but subsequently to the year 1669, the interference of govern- 
ment seems entirely to have ceased.* The renewal of the premiums 
after the act of the year 1658, was, doubtless, owing to the recom- 
mendation of Charles II: for, in the year 1661, among the instruction^ 
given to Sir Wm. Berkeley, upon his reappointment as governor, and 
while in England on a visit, the king recommended the cultivation 
of silk, and mentioned, as an inducement to the colonists to attend to 
his advice, " that he had formerly worn some of the silk of Virginia, 
which he found not inferior to that raised in other countries/' This 
remark is probably the ground of the tradition mentioned by Beverly, 
that the king had worn a robe of Virginia silk at his coronation.t 

The revived encouragement given by the Colonial Legislature to 
the culture of silk, had the desired effect. Mulberry trees were gene- 
rally planted, and the rearing of silkworms formed a part of the 
regular business of many of the farmers. Major Walker, a member 
of the Legislature, produced satisfactory evidence of his having- 
70,000 trees growing in the year 1664, and claimed the premium. 
Other claims of a like tenor were presented the same session. J The 
eastern part of the State abounds at present with white mulberry treesj 
and it is to be hoped the people will see their interest in renewing 
the culture of silk. 

Upon the settlement of Georgia, in 1732, the culture of silk was 
also contemplated as a principal object of attention, and lands were 
granted to settlers upon condition that they planted one hundred 
white mulberry trees on every ten acres, when cleared; and ten years 
were allowed for their cultivation. Trees, seed, and the eggs of silk- 
worms, were sent over by the trustees to whom the management of 
the colony was committed. An Episcopal clergyman and a native of 
Piedmont were engaged to instruct the people in tlie art of rearing 
the worms and winding the silk; and in order to keep alive the idea of 
the silk culture, and of the views of the Government respecting it, on 
one side of the public seal was a representation of silkworms in their 
various stages, with this appropriate motto: " Non sibi sed aliis."§ By 
a manuscript volume containing ''the account of the moneys and 
effects received and expended by the trustees of Georgia," to which 
the writer has had access, it appears that the first parcel of silk receiv- 
ed by the trustees, was in the year 1735, wlien eight pounds of raw 
silk were exported from Savannah to England. It was made into a 
piece, and presented to the queen. || 

* Ilenning-'s Statutes of Virg-inia, vol. 1 & 2. — Letter to the Secretaiy of the Trea- 
•sury in answer to the silk circular, from the Honorubki John Tyler, late Governor 
of Virginia. 

f Burke's Hist. Virginia, vol. 2. p. 125. 

- Burke, vol. 2. p. 241. 

§ M'Call's History of Georgia, vol. 1. p. 22. 29. 

II •' The trustees of Georgia waited on her majesty witii some silk from Georgia, 
wUicli had ])roved very good. It is to be wove into a piece for her majesty." — Gen- 
tleman's Mag. Vol. 5, p. 448. The following entry appears in the manuscript book 
of the trustees, vnider date 1736: " The raw silk from Georgia, organzined by Sir Thos.. 
.Lombe, was made into a piece of silk, and presented to the queen." Under date 1738, 
i'/a charge *♦ for making a rich brc>cade, and dying the silk from Georgia, £26." 



S13 [ 175 ] 

From this time, until the year 1750, there are entries of large par- 
ifels of raw silk received from Georgia, the produce of cocoons raised 
by the inhabitants, and bought from them, at established prices, by 
the agents of the trustees, who had it reeled off under their direction. 
In the year 1751, a public filature was erected, by order of the trus- 
tees. *'The exports of silk, from the year 1750 to 1754, inclusive, 
amounted to $ 8,880. In the year 1757, one thousand and fifty pounds 
of raw silk were received at the filature. In the year 1758, this build- 
ing was consumed by fire, with a quantity of silk, and 7,040 pounds 
cocoons; but another was erected. In the year 1759, the colony ex- 
ported upwards of 10,000 weight of raw silk, which sold two or three 
shillings higher per pound, than that of any other country."* Ac- 
cording to an official statement of William Brown, Comptroller of the 
Customs of Savannah, 8,829 pounds of raw silk were exported between 
the years 1755 and 1772, inclusive.! The last parcel brought for 
sale to Savannah, was in the year 1 790, when upwards of two hun- 
dred weight w^ere purchased for exportation, at 18^. and 2Qs. per 
pound. J 

Some attention was also paid, in early times, to the culture of silk 
in South Carolina; and the writer has been informed, that, during a 
certain period, it was a fashionable occupation. The ladies sent the 
raw silk produced by them to England, and had it manufactured. 
"In the year 1755, Mrs. Pinckney, the same lady who, about ten 
years before, had introduced the indigo plant into South Carolina, 
took with her to England a quantity of excellent silk, which she had 
raised and spun in the vicinity of Charleston, sufficient to make three 
complete dresses: one of them was presented to the Princess Dowager 
of Wales, and another to Lord Chesterfield. They were allowed to 
be equal to any silk ever imported. The third dress, now (1809) in 
Charleston, in the possession of her daughter, Mrs. Horry, is re- 
markable for its beauty, firmness, and strength. "§ The quantity of 
raw silk exported as merchandise was small; for during six years, 
only 251 lbs. were entered at the custom house. || The quality of it 
was excellent: according to the certificate of Sir Thomas Lombe, the 
eminent silk manufacturer, it had as much strength and beauty as the 
silk of Italy. IF At New Bordeaux, a French settlement, 70 miles 

* M' Call's Hist. Georgia, vol. 1. p, 251. 

■f- It will be seen that this statement differs fi'om that of Mr. M'Call. It first appear- 
ed in B. Koman's account of" Florida, and afterwards in Aikin's Pennsylvania Mag-azine, 
for July, 1775 , An opinion of the quality of the Georgia silk, may be formed from the 
following document: 

**A paper was laid before the Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, by about forty 
eminent silk throwsters and weavers, declaring", that, having" examined a parcel of about 
300 pounds weight of Georgia raw^ silk, imported in February last, they found the na- 
ture and texture of it truly good, tiie color beautiful, the thread even, and clean 
as the best Piedmont, and will be worked with less waste than China silk.*' — Londoi.' 
Magazine for 1755. 

t The late Charles Harris, Esq. : letter to the Secretary of the Treasury. 

§ Ramsay's History of South Carolina, vol. 1. p. 221. 

II Viz: in the years 1742, 1748, 1749, 175J, 1753, 1755. — Dodsley's Annual Regi*;^ 
ter, 1761. • 

^ An Impartial Enquiry into thr» St'xte of Georgia. — London, \7A1, p. 79. 



;[ 175 ] '24, 

above Augusta, the people supplied much of the high country with 
sewing silk, during the war of the Revolution.* 

In the year 1771, the cultivation of silk began in Pennsylvania 
and New Jersey, and continued with spirit for several years. The 
subject had been frequently mentioned in the American Philosophical 
Society, as one of those useful designs which it was proper for them to 
promote; but they were induced to enter into a final resolution on it 
in consequence of a letter being laid before them on the 5th January, 
1770, from Doctor Franklin, who was then in London as Agent of 
the Colony, and in answer to one which had been written to him on 
the same subject by the late Doctor Cadwallader Evans. In this letter 
from Doctor Franklin, he recommended the culture of silk to his 
countrymen, and advised the establishment of a public filature in 
Philadelphia, for winding the cocoons. He also sent to the Society a 
copy of the work by the Abbe Sauvage, on the rearing of silkworms. 
A committee having been appointed by the Society to frame a plan 
for promoting the culture of silk, and to prepare an address to the 
Leglslamre, praying for public v^acouragement of the design, they 
proposed to raise a fund, by subscription, for the purchase of cocoons, 
to establish a filature, and to offer for public sale all the silk pur- 
chased and w^ound off at the filature: the produce thereof to be duly 
accounted for, and to remain in the stock for carrying on the design. 
A subscription among the citizens was immediately set on foot, and 
the sum of £S75 I4s, obtained the first year;t eggs and w^hite mulber- 
ry trees were imported, and a digest of instructions composed, pub- 
lished, and distributed. Until the white mulberry trees were fit to 
allow of their leaves being plucked, the worms were fed upon the 
leaves from the native trees, and were found to agree perfectly well 
with them, and to yield excellent silk It is believed that all the silk 
produced during the continuance of the Society, was from food fur- 
nished hy native trees. A spirit for the silk culture was excited 
among the citizens, and many garments are still possessed by fami- 
lies which were made from silk raised by their forefathers. The 
war of the Revolution put an end to the patriotic association, and sus- 
pended, in a great measure, the silk culture — there being no longer a 
sale for cocoons; but many persons continued their attention to it, 
and others resumed it after the termination of the war. 

The knowledge of the proper mode of rearing silkworms, and of 
winding the silk, was greatly promoted by the publication of a paper 
on those subjects, in the 2d volume of Transactions of the American 
Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, which the late Doctor John 
Morgan procured from Italy, through a silk mercantile house in Lon- 

* Thomas McCall, Esquire: answer to the silk circular. 

yThe loss of the minutes of the Society prevents our knowing the amount subscribed 
'.a subsequent years. It is a proof of the anxiety of the Britisii Government, inres[)ectto 
the silk culture in the Colonies, that, in the year 1769, an act was passed for the* /tirMer* 
oKcourag-cmcnt of the g-rowth of silk in North America, g-rantiiig- 25/. for every 100/. 
value of raw silk raised for the next seven years, and smaller bounties during- the two 
following- periods of seven years. But no mention is made of this act by Doctor 
Franklin in his letter, nor docs it appear that any premium w&s claimed by the Society 
in coJiSeqvience of it. 



25 [ 175 ] 

don. ^ During the last three years, a spirit has been revived and diffused 
on the subject, and promises to increase ; and there can be no hesita- 
tion in saying, that a ready sale for cocoons is alone wanting, to esta- 
blish the silk culture as a regular employment in several States of the 
Union. It was the want of this market which defeated, in a great 
degree, the patriotic attempt of Mr. Nathaniel Aspinwall, of Connec- 
ticut, about the year 1790, to revive the silk culture in Pennsylvania, 
New York, and New Jersey. But his memory deserves to be held in 
everlasting and grateful remem.brance, for the thousands of white mul- 
berry trees which he planted in those States, and for the commendable 
zeal he exhibited in the cause. 

In Connecticut, attention to the culture of silk commenced about 
the year 1760, by the introduction of the white mulberry tree, and 
eggs of the silkworms, into the county of Windham, and town of 
Mansfield, from Long Island, New York, by Mr. N. Aspinwall, who 
had there planted a large nursery. He also planted an extensive nur- 
sery of the trees in New Haven, and w^as active in obtaining of the 
Legislature of Connecticut, an act granting a bounty for planting trees; 
a measure in w^hich he was warmly supported by the patriotic and 
learned Dr. Ezra Styles. The premium was ten shillings for every 
hundred trees which should be planted and preserved in a thrifty con 
dition, for three years; and three-pence per ounce for all raw silk, 
which the owners of trees should produce from cocoons of their own 
raising within the State. After the public encouragement for raising 
t^ees was found unnecessary, a small bounty on raw silk, manufactur- 
ed within the State, was continued some time longer. A statute con- 
tinues in force, requiring sewing silk to consist of twenty threads, each 
two yards long.t 

It would be an act of injustice to omit noticing the generous en- 
couragement to the cultivation of silk in the American Colonies, which 
was given by the patriotic Society in London, for *^the Promotion of 
Arts," &c. From the year 1755 to 1772, several hundred pounds 
sterling were paid to various persons in Georgia, South Carolina, and 
Connecticut, in consequence of premiums offered by the Society, for 
planting mulberry trees, and for cocoons and raw silk.± 

After the war of the Revolution, the business was renewed, and 
gradually extended; and it is recorded, that, in the year 1789, two 
hundred pounds weight of raw silk were made in the single town of 
Mansfield, in Windham, Connecticut. § In the year 1810, the value of 
the sewing silk and raw silk, made in the three counties of New Lon- 
don, Windbam, and Tolland, was estimated, by the United States' 
Marshal, at g28,503;|| but the value of the domestic fabrics made 

* This excellent paper has been copied In all the British and Srolh Enc\ clopxdias, 
and was reprinted in a pamphlet, at Windham, Connectirnvt, in the year 1792. 

t Governor VVolcot's answer to the silk circular. 

t The particulars are not inserted in the transactions cf the Society, but may be 
seen in Bayley's Advancement of the Arts, London, 1772j and in Dossie's Mamoirs 
of At^riculturc, vol. 3. 

§ Columbian Mag-azine, Philadelphia, 4, p. 61. 

II Statement of the arts and manufacUU'es of the United St .tcs for the year 1810. 
By Tench Cox^. 

4 



[ 175 ] 26 

from the refuse silk, and worn in those counties, was not taken inte*- 
consideration. They may be fairly estimated at half of the above sum. 
In the year 1825, inquiries were made by the writer, in Windham 
county, as to the increased attention to the silk culture there, and it 
was found that the value of the silk, and of the domestic fabrics man- 
ufactured in that county, was double that of the year 1810. It was 
also found, that sewing silk was part of the circulating medium, and 
that it was readily exchanged at the stores for other articles, upon 
terms which were satisfactory to both parties, and that the balance of 
the account, when in favor of the seller, was paid in silver. The only 
machines for making the sewing silk, are the common domestic small 
and large wheels; but practice supplies the defects of these imperfect 
implements. With better machinery, sewing silk of a superior quality 
would be made. At present, ''three-fourths of the families in Mans- 
field, are engaged in raising silk, and make, annually, from 5 to 10, 
20, and 50 pounds in a family, and one or two have made, each, 100 
pounds in a season. It is believed that there are annually made in 
Mansfield, and the vicinity, from three to four tons. * 

The farmers consider the amount received for their sewing silk as 
so much clear gain, as the business does not interfere with the regular 
farm work of the men, or the domestic duties of the females, upon 
whom, with the aged and youthful members of the family, the care of 
the worms, and the making of the sewing silk, chiefly devolves. It is 
known also, that in the other New England States, Maine excepted, 
more or less attention to the silk culture is given. 

During the late war with England, Samuel Chidsey, of Cayuga 
county, New York, sold sewing silk to the amount of $ 600 a year, 
Mr. C. introduced the white mulberry tree in the town of Scipio, on. 
its first settlementt Silk was, also, formerly raised by the French in- 
habitants, in the country now the State of Illinois, but to what extent 
is not known, t 

The cultivation of silk has commenced in the States of Ohio and 
Kentucky, and there is every reason to believe that it will extend. 
The first mentioned State contains a great number of citizens who for- 
merly resided in the silk-growing districts of Connecticut and Massa- 
chusetts, and who will doubtless see their interest in renewing a branch 
of business from which they formerly derived so much profit. In the 
latter State, it is chiefly confined to those industrious people, the United 
Brethren, whose steady, persevering labors and intelligence, are the 
surest guarantees of success. 

* Z. Storrs, Epq. of MtvnsfieM: answer to tlve silk circular. 

The manufacture of liilk is chiirily confined to tlie counties of tVindham and To! 
land. The quantity made in five to'\rnt5, last season, 1827, according to an accurate 
statement, was as follows: 

Rlansneld 2,430 lbs. | Ashford 500 lbs. Coventry 350 lbs. 

Chapiin 559 do. j fiampton 467 do. 

V/orlb four dollars per pound. The val'ic increases one-foiirtli in manufacturing;. 
Several towns in which muci) silk is itiade, gave nou'eturns. Letter to the Secte 
tary of the Treasury, by D. IValkeley, l^sq. 

f Mr. David T/ioma'^: letter in answer to the silk circular. 

-- Goveinor Coles: letter in answer to tiiesilk circular. 



2T [ 175 ] 



CHAPTER I. 

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SILKWORM. 

The phalaena, or moth of the silkworm, or, more properly, the silk- 
i^aterpillar, is about an inch long, and nearly an inch and a half be- 
tween the extremities of the largest wings, when extended. The bo- 
dies of both male and female, are obscurely white, and thickly covered 
with short hairs. There are two antennae;* the stems are whitish, and 
lateral fillets pectinated, or like the teeth of a comb. In the male, 
they are unequally spaced, while in the female, they are smooth, less 
pectinated, shorter, and not so close, and, in a state of repose, they 
commonly lie on their sides. There are four transparent wings, of 
the same color as the body. In the male, the upper surface of the su- 
perior wings are crossed by two brown bands; the broadest one is near 
the extremity of the wing, and is continued on the under wing. Both 
bands are bordered with a line: on the under surface there is only one 
band. The superior wings are a little bent downwards at their ends. 
The inferior wings of both are reverse in a state of rest, and extend 
beyond the upper ones. The wings are covered with a white powder. 

The tail of the male is somewhat raised and square. The female is 
larger than the male; her wings are less strongly marked with bands, 
and on the exterior margin of the wings. On the wings of both, are 
several rays, which are as apparent on the under as the upper surfaces. 
These are termed nervures, and are hollow tubes, proceeding from 
the commencement of the wings, and diminish gradually in size, (the 
marginal one excepted) to their termination. The vessels contained in 
these nervures, consist of spiral threads, whence they appear to be in- 
tended to be air vessels communicating with the air vessels in the 
body.t The wings are flat, and incapable of contraction or dilatation. 
There are two black convex eyes, one on each side of the head. They 
are protuberant, and rise above the head rather more than a hemi- 
sphere. To the naked eye, their surface appears to be plain; but, by 
submitting them to the microscope, their true and admirable structure 
is ascertained. By the help of this instrument, it is found that the 
whole surface consists of a multitude of lenses, all separated from one 

* The antennae are commonly called feelers, from the circumstance of numerous 
insects touching- substances with them; but all antennae are not thus used, nor are 
they formed to answer this purpose. 

It is now supposed that they are, in some way, connected with the org-an of hear- 
ing"; and that they may collect and transmit sound to such an org-an, the minuteness 
of which defies investigation. This organ is suspected to be at the base of the an- 
tennae, the spot in which the same organ has been discovered in the crayfish. Kirby 
and Spence on Insects, vol. 3. pp. 43. 46, vol. 4. p. 216. 

■j- These nervures are not peculiar to the raotji of th« si Ik -caterpillar, hj'.t rommoii 
to the wings of most insects. 



[ 175 ] as 

another by an hexagonal or six-sided figure, and placed in the most 
exact order. Leewenhoek counted thirty -five of these Jenscs on the 
fourth part of the sphere of one eye; the entire circumference will 
therefore contain 140; hence, he says, it follows, that each eye is com- 
posed of 3,000 optical organs; but, if both parts together constituted 
a sphere, they then contain 6,236. When the eye is separated and 
made clear, these hexagons are as transparent as crystal. Leewen- 
hoek having properly prepared and fitted an eye to a microscope, 
could see through it clearly, but the largest objects viewed, were di- 
minished to an incredibly small size. The steeple of the church in 
Delft, which is 300 feet high, at 750 feet distance, appeared no largej^ 
than the point of a needle, seen by the naked eye. 

Not hug-e Behemoth, nor the whale's vast form. 
That spouts a torrent, and that breathes a storm. 
Transcends in org'ans apt this puny fly. 
Set with ten thousand lenses.* — Evans, 

The construction of these compound eyes, is admirably adapted to the 
convenience of the insect; for, as they are immovable, they w^ould 
have lost sight of many objects, if their eyes had been framed like 
those of other animals; but, by their form, they can easily see sur- 
rounding objects. As we do not see double with our eyes, so the numer- 
ous inlets to sight in an insect, may increase their field of view. 

When the w^orm is first hatched, it is very minute, and of a brown 
hue, if healthy. This hue is derived from the hairs covering its bo- 
dy: they disappear in the course of a few days, when it assumes a 
light or d^.rk hue, according to the nature of the particular variety, 
"ehind the head, the skin is formed into six wrinkles. The body is 
composed of twelve articulations, or rings: each ring, except the se- 
cond, third, and last, is marked on the sides, and near the belly, with 
spots of a deeper color than that of the skin, and show oval openings 
through which the insect respires. These openings are termed spira- 
cula,t or breathing holes, and communicate, internally, with two air 
vessels, running the whole length ©f the body, one on each side, in a 
straight line, from one spiracle, or stigma, to another, and, uniting 
near the head, form one trunk. They serve, or perform, the office of 
lungs. In other words, these stigmata are eighteen mouths, which 
admit air into the principal air vessels in the large trunks of the tra- 
chea, or wind-pipes, whence it is led to the different and numerous ra- 
mifications of the air tubes, to the intestinal canal, to the other inter- 
nal parts, and to the skin. 

* The number of lenses in an eye, varies in different insects. Leewcnliock count- 
ed 8,000 in that of a common house fly. fa J Ilooke ftj computed 7,000 in a horse 
lly; and Vuget fcj 17,o25 in that of a butterfly. 

■\ Malphitji and Ueaumur call them stigmata. 



(a) Select works, 4to. vol. 1. p. 62. Lon.1. 1790. 'J-^ Microgcapliia, p. 176. 

(c) Amsenitates Acadeinicie. vo^. 3. ji. 112. 



29 



C 175 ] 



The silk-caterpillar has sixteen feet. The three first pair are scaly and 
hard, and placed under the three first rings, one on each side. The 
next two rinajs are destitute of feet. The four succeeding rings have 
each two feet. These are soft and membranous, and swell, contract, 
and expand, at the will of the insect. The next two rings are with- 
out feet; the last ring has two feet. The extremities of the twelve 
membranous feet, are furnished with hooks, or claws, the number 
of which, according to the accurate Malphigi, are forty* in number in 
each foot. They are of difierent sizes, and are placed in double and 
equi-distant rows. The extremities of the six first feet, consist of 
curved nails, or hooks, which enable the caterpillar to hold to the spot 
to which it has been pushed by the contractions of the posterior 
rings. These feet are the envelopes of those which appear in the 
moth. The others remain with the cast off skin of the caterpillar. 

On the last ring but one, is placed a small horn, if that can deserve 
this name, says Reaumur, v/hich is used neither as a vveapon of attack 
nor defence. This accurate naturalist acknowledges his inability to 
point out its use. The head of the caterpillar is formed of two scalv 
spherical pieces, which do not touch, but leave a triangular space be- 
tween them. On each side of these pieces, and in front, six or seven 
black spots, arranged in a circle, may be seen: these are the eyes. The 
opening between these two pieces, below and in the forepart, is the 
mouth. It is armed with two parallel jaws, and with teeth, which 
move horizontally when the insect eats. The spinnaret, or silk hole, 
is near the summit of a pyramidal substance, occupying the middle of 
the lower lip, and terminates in a little papilla of a black form, from 
the point of which the silk filament issues that forms the cocoon. The 
canal which receives the aliment, proceeds, in a straight line, from the 
mouth to the vent, and is of different capacities, analogous to the gul- 
let, the stomach, and intestines, of animals. The vessels in which the 
silk is formed, consist of two parallel tubes of the same size, which 
are so extremely delicate near their termination, as to appear to unite 
in one tube; but, by immersmg and hardening the insect in spirits of 
wine, Rcaumurt found that they continued sej)arate to their ends, and 
that he could take them out entire: they are about one foot in length. 
The use of the microscope confirmed the structure: for, by tlie help of 
this apparatus, he discovered that the fibre of silk, minute as it is, in- 
stead of being round, as it would be if it proceeded from one vessel, 
had more breadth than thickness, and that, in the middle of each fibre, 
there was a kind of furrow, giving the appearance of two flattened 
cylinders glued together. In some threads, he even saw tlie separa- 
tion, or forks, at the end of the threadj From the contracted natun? 

* De Bombycibus, p. 9; Malpliisi Opera LondinJ, 1737. 

f Memoire sur insects, p. 147, Paris, 4to. l?o4. 

t Memoire, p 499. In tiiis admirable work, Keaiimur has sliowii tiji.s confirmatinn 
of the silk thread in mag-nificd fisj-ures. Plate 5, tig. 4; plate "2, fig-. 1.3, 14, 15; 
plate 33, fig. 1, 2, 3. Leewenhoek had, many years previously, demon.stiated this 
structure by the microscope. L\'onct, liowevcr, (JUf^stions the accuracy of both, and 
ins'sts that both silk Uibcs unite bcfc^re they reach the orH'ice. Traitc Analoniuqi.".- 
de la Chenille, &c. p. 55. A la Ilayc, 1762, 



[ 175 ] 30 

of the sides, and the foim of the orifice, combined with the power the 
insect lias of moving it in every direction, results the difference we 
see in the breadth and form of the threads, and the various thickness 
of the same thread.* 

The silk reservoirs, following the course of the stomach, extend as 
far as the last pair of membranous feet, then fold back on each side, 
and proceed to the head, and, after two more turnings, the tubes less- 
ening in size, they end in a series of convolutions.! Each of these 
vessels is filled with a glutinous matter, near the time of spinning the 
cocoon, generally of the color of the silk which the caterpillar will 
spin. Sometimes it is of different colors in the same vessel; the up- 
per part containing a yellow liquor, and the lower portion of it a pale 
liquor. The quality of the leaves, and the constitution of the insect, 
are the piobable causes of this circumstance. While in the silk-secre- 
tors, it assumes the appearance of a viscid gum; but the moment it is 
exposed to the air, after being thrown out by the worm, it dries and 
hardens into a single thread. 

The silk-caterpillar, whose life is one continued succession of 
changes, casts off its skin four times before it reaches its full growth. 
Tliis is a wonderful provision of nature, although, as is well known, 
not confined to this insect, to relieve itself from the constriction it suf- 
fers from the skin, which does not expand in proportion to the gradual 
increase of its body. These changes are times of pain to the cater- 
pillar, which it shows by a state of languor, and by ceasing to eat. It 
prepares for the operation, by emptying the intestinal tube, and b)'' 
throwing out, at different parts of its body, silky fibres, and attaching 
them to the litter of its food, in order that, while it exerts itself, the 
skin may remain fixed in the spot where it is placed. The insect is 
now seen, at intervals, with its back elevated, or with its body stretch- 
ed to the utmost extent, sometimes raising its head, wdiich is swelled 
and pointed, moving from side to side, and then letting it fall. Near 
the cliange, the second and third rings are seen considerably swollen. 

By these internal efforts, the old parts are stretched and distended, 
pnd ;' Silt is made on the back, generally beginning at the second or 
third ring. The new skin may now be perceived by its freshness 
and brightness of color. The caterpillar tlicn presses the body into 
tlds opening, by which means, and a continuance of swellings and 
conti'itctions, a rent is made from the first to the fourth ring. Then^ 
bending the forepart of its body, and drawing it backwards, it disen- 
giges tlic head from its old covering, and throws it out of the slit. 
Filially, curving the posterior rings, and drawing them towards the 
head, the vrhole body escapes from its sheath. This escape is facili- 
tated by a moip.ture, which the insect emits and diffuses over its body. 

This laborious operation is the work of an instant; and the skin, 
when cast off, is so entire, that it might be mistaken for the larva or 
caterpillar itself, comprising, not only the covering of the trunk, but 
of the very skull, eyes, jaws, and legs. These changes are termed 

* Kirby and Spence°6 Introduction to Entomolog-y, vol. 3, p. 125, Lond. 

+ AVben taken out and extended, they measure a foot hbU seven inches in length. 



31 [ 175 ] 

moultings, and take place at different intervals, and continue for va- 
rious periods, according to the climate or temperature in which the 
insects have been kept, their particular nature, tlie quality of the food, 
and the quantity and regularity with which they have been supplied. " 
In this country, in a general way, the silk-caterpillars of four casts or 
moultings, which have been, in all respects, properly treated, show 
symptoms of their first moulting on the fourth or fifth day after tliey 
are hatched. 

The appearances which the worm assumes in the various stages of 
its life, will be mentioned in the course of the details of its progress to 
maturity, and therefore need not be here anticipated. 

Sometimes a part of the covering remains attached to the extremity 
of the caterpillar, which cannot cast it off. The insect then swells or 
enlarges in the part v/hich is disentangled, while the other part of the 
body continuing compressed, occasions its death. 

After having recovered from a moulting, the new skin is pale and 
wrinkled; the insect appears much larger than before, owing to the 
room given for distending its body under the new skin, and feeds with 
increased activity. This increase of appetite is in proportion to the 
advanced age of the insect; but, after the fourth moulting, it is very 
great, and the consumption of leaves is immense. The last casting 
of the skin, which is visible, being finished, and the caterpillar having 
attained its greatest size, and matured the silky material in its ves- 
sels, it loses all appetite, ceases to eat, and consequently to grow, and 
then diminishes in weight and size. It relieves itself of the contents 
of the alimentary canal, which are now soft and green, mstead of hard 
and black as before, and contracts its skin, and whole body, to such 
a degree, as to be readily perceptible. These appearances take place 
about nine or ten days after the fourth m.oulting. The caterpillar 
now begins to prepare for spinning the silky tomb in which nature 
has destined that it should enclose itself. It first wanders about, and 
Faises up its head, as if searching for a place to commence work, aiirl, 
having fixed on a suitable spot, it throws out some loose threads, and 
glues one end of them to an adjoining surface. These threads it 
next conducts to another part, and then fastens them; repeating this 
process, and interlacing them in various directions, until it lias sur- 
rounded itself with a slight and loosely spun netting. In the ccntrt* 
ef this, when contracted into a space sufficiently small, it lays thfv 
foundation of the interior cocoon. Fixing itself to some of the sur- 
rounding threads, it bends its body, and, by successive motions of the 
head from side to side^ spins a layer of silk on the side opposite to it-, 
when this is of the requisite thickness, the insect shifts its position, and 
repeats the same process in another quarter,t covering each layer, in 
lUrn, w4th a new one, until the interior cavity is reduced to tlie size 
desired. Thus, the silken thread wliich forms the cocoon, is not, as 

* In India, during' Summer, the moulting-s arc nnislicdin a tew houij. — Antlcison'!= 
Bee, Edin . vol. 8, ]). 39. 

t See Plate 3, tii;.s. 4 and 5, for :^ view of ftic precise mode irv whirh. fhc sJk fi'ircs 
are laid. 



[ 175 ] 32 

might be supposed, wound circularly, as we wind the thread of a ball 
of cotton, but backwards and forwards, in a series of zigzags, so as to 
compose a number of distinct layers. Malphigi* distmguished six of 
tshese layers; and Reaumurt suspects there is often a greater number. 
Hence, when the cocoon is wound off, the unravelling proceeds in a 
very irregular manner. The inside is smeared with a gum of the 
same nature with that out of which the silk is formed. 

The construction of tlie cocoon is a work of three days, or three 
days and a half. During the first day, the insect forms the exterior 
envelope, which is merely the scaffolding, by means of which the in- 
ner and more solid covering is constructed. On the second, it forms 
the ball, and covers itself with silk. The third day, the insect is quite 
hid, and afterwards it is employed in thickening and strengthen- 
ing the ball. Having done this, tlie caterpillar has to undergo a 
second change of form, viz: into that of a chrysalis; that state in- 
tervening betv/een the larva, or caterpillar, and imago, or perfect 
moth, in which its parts and organs are fully prepared, and fitted for 
their final and complete developement in the last mentioned state. 
This state is assumed on or about the fourth day after having spun its 
eocoon. In this state it is quiescent, and apparently without life, but 
all this time a new organization is internally forming. The first ope- 
ration it performs, is to cast off the external skin, which covered it 
in the caterpillar state, with the head and jaws attached to it. This 
it does in one or two days after finishing its cocoon, and, according 
%o Malphigi, in the space of one minute and ten seconds;^ who adds, 
that the act is greatly promoted by a yellowish fluid, discharged from 
the cavity of the head, which enables the outward skin the more 
easily to slip over it, as the insect contracts and elongates. The 
'fiaterpillar thus stripped, is called the pupa. The exterior cover- 
ing gradually becomes hard, while the interior remains so soft, that 
the slightest touch will decompose it. The stomach is filled with 
yellow mucus, w^hich is doubtless the source of nourishment to the 
pupa. The germs, or rudiments, of the future moth, which, according 
to Swammerdam, may be detected even in the caterpillar, near its 
last change, in a semi-fluid state, § gradually develop, and assume 
their destined form; the wings, rolled up, are lodged between the 
second and third rings; the antennse are placed alongside of them; the 
legs are actually sheathed in legs; and when they have acquired a 
proper degree of solidity, a slight inflation of the body is suflicient to 
split the membrane wliich covers them. A repetition of these motions 
x^nlarges the slit, and aflbrds the moth room to escape from its confine- 

■* De Eombycibus, p. 24. 

Y Toine 1, p. 498. 

n: De Bomb3'cibus, p. 25. 

'5 Tc discover these, it is directed to drown tlie caterpillar, when about to assume 
'\\e pupa state, in vineg'ar, or spirits of wine, and to let it remain there for several 
days, to liardcn tl\e parts; or to boil it for a few minutes, then to dissect off the skin, 
v/hen the enclosed moth will appear, hut the parts are in a different manner from 
t'iiat in v.hich they lic-i^n the pupa. 



3S [ 175 3 

ment. If the cocoon be opened, it is easy to discover the efforts which 
the insect makes to free itself. When the operation begins, there 
-seems to be a violent agitation in the humors of the little animal; the 
fluids being driven with rapidity through all the vessels, the limbs 
and other parts are put in motion, and, by repeated efforts, it breaks 
through the brittle "skin that envelopes it. 

Another operation remains to be performed; this is, to penetrate the 
tough, silky cocoon, with which it is covered. 

It has been a question how the moth escapes from the cocoon. 
Malphigi^ asserts that it first wets the end of the cocoon with a 
liquid, calculated to dissolve the gum which glues the fibres together, 
and then employs its head to push them aside, and make an opening. 
But, as Reaumur has observed,! besides, that so obtuse a part as 
the head of a moth is but ill suited to act as a wedge, we find the threads 
not merely pushed to each side, but actually cut asunder. He there- 
fore infers, that the eyes are the instruments by which the threads 
are divided — their numerous minute facets serving the purpose of a 
fine file. The Rev. Mr. Swayne:}: supports the idea of Malphigi. He 
informs us that he has unravelled several pierced cocoons, but never 
found that the thread was discontinued in any one instance. He re- 
marks, however, that, whenever this is attempted, it must be with the 
cocoon dry, as the silk will be immediatelj^ entangled when put into 
hot water. Analogy is against the opinion of Reaumur, since other 
kinds of silkworms make their escape by means of a fluid, as the Jit- 
tacus Paphia, of India, described by Dr. Roxburgh. § Perhaps the 
two opinions may be reconciled, by supposing that the silkworm first 
moistens, and then breaks the iibres of the cocoon, by the united as- 
sistance of his jaws and head. This is the opinion of Mr. Swayne. 

The time occupied by the siik-caterpillar in going through its dif- 
ferent forms of existence, varies in different countries; and depends 
upon climate, the temperature in which they have been kept, food^ 
and the nature of the particular variety of insect. 

These circumstances, which are the true causes, will explain the 
different statements of various writers on the subject, all of whom pro- 
fess to speak from actual observation. It will be hereafter seen, too, 
that the temperature of the room in which the eggs have been kept, 
during the winter, affects the periods at which they hatch. 

In general, silk-caterpillars, of four casts, when treated carefully, 
according to the system laid down by the experienced Dandolo — that 
is, gradually brought to maturity by a due regulation of the heat of the 
apartment, experience their first change or moulting on the fourth 
and fifth days after they have left their eggs: the second commences 
on the eighth day, and ends on the ninth: the third occupies the thir- 
teenth and fourteenth days: the fourth, and last, is effected on the 
tvyenty-first and twenty-second days. The fifth age lasts ten days, at 

* De Bombycibus, p. 29. 
f Reaumur, Hist, des Insects, tome 1, p. 624. 
i Trans. Soc. Arts, Lond. vol. 7, p- 132. 
% Trans. Linnxan Soc, Lond. vol. 7, p. 35 

5 



i; 175 ] 34 

the end of which lime the caterpillars have reached their ultimate 
growl h, are three inches in length, and of the size of a swan's quill, 
or even larger, and prepared to spin their cocoons. Each moulting takes 
up about two days: making, in all, about thirty-two days from the 
hatching of the insect. 

In Pennsylvania, where artificial heat has not yet been generally 
Employed, the worms which have proceeded from stocks long among 
us, come to maturity in about forty-two days; in Mansfield, Connec- 
ticut, in about five weeks. The small white worms, of the same place, 
which produce beautiful and fine white silk, and two crops annually, 
feed twenty days. A part of the worms produced from eggs import- 
ed in the spring of 1826, from Genoa, by the writer, and reared in the 
Pennsylvania Hospital, came to maturity in twenty-six days. 

The length of time passed by the worm in the state of a chrysalis, 
depends much upon the degree of heat in which the cocoons are kept. 
If the temperature be about 66° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the moths 
will make their appearance after fifteen days; while, on the contrary, 
the experienced Abbe Sauvage informs us, that he has prevented them 
from coming forth for a month, by keeping the cocoons in a vault.* 
This is very important information, as, by having recourse to this ex- 
pedient, time will be given to wind ofi"the cocoons, without baking or 
steaming them to kill the chrysalis. 

In whichever way the cocoon is pierced, as soon as the head of the 
moth is out, the efibrts he makes to bring forward the rest of his body, 
increase the opening; his two forward legs are soon out, and then, at- 
taching them strongly to the exterior part of the cocoon, he uses this 
as a new support; other legs come out, and finally the whole moth 
escapes, leaving behind, in the cocoon, his caterpillar's skin, in a 
crumpled state, with the head and jaws attached thereto, and the shell 
of the chrysalis. Having gained their liberty, the moths discharge a 
red excrementitious fluid: neither of them attempts to fly: the male, 
anxious to fulfil the destiny of his nature, goes immediately in search 
of the female, fluttering his wings with great rapidity, and having 
found one? couples with her, continuing, for some time, to flap his 
wings. After difierent intervals of time, they separate, and the male 
soon after dies; the female crawls about, and lays from 200 to 450 
minute eggs, and then she also dies. The eggs, when first laid, are 
of a pale yellow color; but, in the course of eight or ten days they as- 
sume a reddish gray hue, and, sometime after that, a pale slate color. 
The unimpregnated, and consequently sterile eggs, remain yelloWj,. 
and are more depressed on their surface than good eggs. 

*Sur rEdircation des Vers a Sole. 3d Memoir, p. 143. 



35 [ 175 ] 



CHAPTER II. 

VARIETIES IN SILKWORMS. ( BoTiXhyx MoH. ) 

1. Of small Silkworms of three casts or moult ings, 

I have reared, says Dandolo, a quantity of these silkworms sepa- 
rately, the eggs of which may be found in several parts of Lombardy. 
The worms and cocoons of this variety are two-fifths smaller than 
those of the common sort. His experiments demonstrated, that these 
worms consume, to form a pound of cocoons, nearly as much leav^es as 
the large species; and, although smaller when they have reached their 
full growth, they devour more fragments and shoots of leaves than the 
common sort. Their cocoons are composed of finer and more bf^auti- 
ful silk than the common cocoon: they are also better constructed, and 
to this is owing the greater quantity of silk, which, at equal weights, is 
drawn from those cocoons, than from common cocoons. This variety^ 
in the opinion of Dandolo, should be infinitely more cultivated than it 
has hitherto been: for, 

1. These silkworms require four days less of care than the common 
silkworms. 

2. They afford a saving of time, labor, and money. 

3. They are not so long exposed to accidents — their life being 
shorter. 

Some imagine the species to be delicate, but they appeared to Dan- 
dolo to be strong and vigorous. Six hundred cocoons weigh a pound 
and a half. 

2. Of large Silkworms of four casts. 

Dandolo reared many of these silkworms of a very large quality. 
The eggs came from Friuli: they* produce larger worms and larger 
cocoons, yet they are not much larger nor much heavier than the eggs 
of the common species. The worms, at their full size, weigh nearly 
twice and a half as much as the common worm. The cocoons arc in 
the same proportion: 150 of the large sort weigh a pound and a half, 
while it requires 360 of the common cocoon to weigh as much. The 
silk is coarser and not so pure as that of the common kind; the worms 
are five or six days later in attaining their full growth, and in rising, 
than the common silkworm. 

3. Of the Worms that produce lohite Silk. 

*^ I have raised," says Dandolo, '*a large quantity of these, and 
found them, in all respects, equal to the common silkworms of four 
casts. If I reared silkworms for the purpose of spinning the silk 
myself, I would cultivate only the silkworm of three casts, and those 
that produce white silk, as preferable to all others; and every year 
would choose the very whitest and finest cocoons, to prevent the de- 
generation of the species." 

This species was introduced into France about forty-five years sincCj 



[ 175 ] 36 

from China, but was not much cultivated until about seventeen year?^ 
past. It is now highly prized by the manufacturers, as appears by 
the report of the exhibition of French Industry, in the year 1819.* 

In Windham county, Connecticut, there is also a small pale white 
worm, which eats but twenty days, and produces fine white silk, 
though in less quantity than either the common large pale w^hite, or 
the dark colored worm; but it has the good quality of retaining its clear 
white color, ana does not turn yellow by washing, or by exposure to sun 
and air. These worms produce also two crops. It is highly probable 
that these white worms are of the same species as that last mentioned. 

The dark drab colored worms, which are very common in the 
United States, and called "black," live longer, and make more silk 
than the large white worms. 

4. Silkworms of eight crops. 

At the silk establishment of the British East India Company at 
Jungepore, Bengal, Lord Valencia, besides the common annual silk-^ 
ivorm which gave but one crop, found two others; the one common- 
ly reared, and supposed to- be indigencvus, is called Dacey, producing 
eight harvests. Another and worst, the China, or Madrassa, also 
yields eight times a year.t This last may be the kind mentioned by 
Arthur Young, who says, he ^' obtained a silkw^orm from China, 
which he reared, and in tv/enty-five days- had the cocoons in his ba» 
sins, and by the twenty-ninth or thirty-first days, a new progeny feed- 
ing in his trays." He justly remarks, that " they would be a mine 
to whoever would cultivate them.''.^ The American who would in- 
troduce any of the best of these silkworms into the United St ies, 
would render an essential service to his country. If circumstances, 
however, should prevent the importation of the species before men- 
tioned, it is presumed there w^ill be no difficulty in procuring, from the' 
Isle of France, tlie eggs of those which came from Bengal in the year 
1815, and were reared under the direction of Mr. Chazel, and which 
breed three times' a year;§ or the variety of Madrass, which, accord- 
ing to Dr. Anderson, finish their course in forty days, viz: six days in 
eggs, tw^enty-two a worm, eleven in the cocoon, and one a moth..|| 

Onrearingtivo or three crops of idorms in the United States, in one 

season. 

In those States where the heat continues long, more than one crop 
of worms can be obtained in a season without artificial means, as the 
following statement shows: 

" In the month of MarcJi, 18;36, Mr. Seth Millington,ir received a 

* Malphigi, long since, mentioned the existence of a variety of silkworms in Italy, 
which bred twice In a seuson. — De Uombycibiis, p. 43. 

"i" Travels to India in 1802, 180o, vol. 1, p. TS, Loiul. 1809. 

\ Annals of Agriculture, vol. 23, ]). 2S5 

§ Transactions Soc. Arts, Lomlon, vol. 42. 

il Anderson's Bee, vol. 8, p. 312, Edinburgli. 

\ Of Prairie Ilaut, St. Charles Co. Mi.-^iouri: letter to the Secretary oitlic Treasu- 
ry,- in answer to the silk clrcului , 



37 [ 175 3 

few silkworm eggs from Philadelphia, which were kept in an upper 
roorr.j without a tire, and hatched early in April: they w^ere fed the 
first weeu. on lettuce, afterwards on the leaves of the white and na- 
tive mulberry tree, and came to maturity within from twenty-four to 
thirt}' days, and spun their cocoons before the 12th of May. On the 
last days of May, and first of June, the moths came out and laid 
their eggs on paper, which was loosely rolled up, and placed in an up- 
per room. Within eight or ten days from the time the eggs were laid, 
they began to hatch, and, before the 15th of June, nearly one-twen- 
tieth part had hatched; the worms were healthy, fed well, grew^ more 
rapidly, and came to maturity in a few days less time than the first 
crop. They wound their cocoons in the first days of July; on the 
last of that month, and first of August, the moths came forth, and 
laid their eggs, which were placed in the same room as the first eggs. 
In about the same length of time, they also began to hatch, and all the 
worms came out between the 12th and ISth of August. They came to 
maturity, and spun their cocoons, in somewhat less time than the first, 
t-iz. before the middle of September:* the moths came forth, and 
laid their eggs the first days of October.'^ 

On the subject of these repeated productions, Mr. Millington says: 
*^ I feel confident that, in most parts of the Union, the climate will ad- 
mit of more than one crop of silkworms being raised in the course of 
a year, as in Asia. Our weather is equally favorable for their healthy 
for more than five months in the year, and if the leaves of our mul- 
berry trees are frequently taken from them, they will continue to put 
out fresh leaves for the same length of time. Between the three succes- 
sive crops which I raised the past summer, there were two intervals, 
each long enough to have raised other crops, when the weather was as 
favorable for their growth, and the mulberry trees were putting out 
leaves as luxuriantly as at any time during the summer. These inter- 
vals w^erefrom the 12th May to the 12th June; and from the 10th July 
to the 12th August, each long enough to have raised a crop of silk- 
worms which would have made five crops. I am convinced, from the 
produce of the crops, that when five crops are raised the same year^ 
the second, third, and fourth, will spin the largest and best cocoons. 
Our middle summer months are not too warm for such worms as arer 
hatched out in, and constantly live in this warm temperature: but the 
first and last crops will be more apt to experience frequent changes 
in the weather, and will be more liable to be injured by both heat 
and cold. 

'^ I do not doubt but that the following plan will effect the object of 
rearing successive crops: The eggs for the first cnjj), must be kept 
over winter, and be hatched, in the usual manner, about the middle oi* 
April. If the mulberry leaves are small, they may be fed a part of 
the time on lettuce; they will come to maturity, and wind their co- 
coons, within thirty days. The eggs for the second crop must also 
be kept over winter, and their hatching retarded in the spring, by 

* 0^yin§•, doubtless, to the Increased heat of the weather. 



[ 175 ] 38 

keeping theiti in a very cold cellar, or ice-house, until within five c5^ 
six days of the time in which this crop will be wanted, when, by bring- 
ing these eggs into the room, they will readily hatch: or the eggs 
for this second crop may be provided by forcing a few worms to 
hatch about the middle of March, in a warm room, and by feeding 
them on lettuce until the mulberry trees will furnish leaves. These 
worms will grow slowly, and probably will not spin much silk; but 
if they are kept in a warm room, they will be healthy; and will fur- 
nish eggs which may be used for the second or following crop. The 
eggs for the third, fourth, and fifth crops of worms, will be furnished 
by the first and second crop of worms, or they also may be kept over 
winter, and their hatching retarded in the spring, by keeping them 
in an ice-house* until the worms are wanted. 

" The eggs of the silkworm will bear a greater degree of heat the 
same season they are laid, without hatching, than is required to hatch 
them the following spring, By being chilled during the winter, they 
seem to acquire a greater sensibility to heat, and a greater disposition 
to hatch. When we wish to hatch them the same season they are laid, 
this process of nature may be somewhat imitated by keeping them in 
a cold cellar, from the time they are laid, until wanted to be hatched; 
this will facilitate their hatching; yet if the weather is not very warm, 
artificial heat may still be necessary, and a constant exposure to a 
temperature somewhere between eighty and one hundred degrees of 
Fahrenheit, in a moist atmosphere, will hatch them in five or six days.t 
The hatching of these eggs may also be facilitated, or rather, silk- 
worm eggs may be procured, which w^ill have a greater disposition ta 
hatch the same season, by putting the cocoons which contain the in- 
sects in their pupa state, in a cellar where the temperature is at about 
sixty degrees, and by keeping them there until they change to moths 
and lay their eggs; these eggs, soon after they are laid, might be kept 
in a temperature still lower, until wanted to be hatched. 

" That silkworm eggs, thus procured and kept, would have a greater 
disposition to hatch, I am convinced by the following late experiment. 
I had some eggs laid in June, when the thermometer ranged between 
ninety and ninety-six degrees; some laid in August, when the ther- 
mometer was between eighty-eight and ninety-four degrees; and some 
laid the first of October, when the thermometer w^as between fifty- 
eight and sixty-five. These three parcels of eggs I exposed to a tem- 
perature of between sixty-six and seventy-two, on the 10th of Octo- 
ber, and before the 20th, that parcel of eggs which were laid in Octo- 
ber, when the weather was cool, hatched out; but the two first parcels, 
which were laid in warmer weather, did not hatch. 

I have supposed that the whole of each crop of worms will be hatch- 
ed at the same, and will all come to their full growth at the same time, 
and each crop will occupy the shelves about one month. In this case,- 
(from their diminutive size,) enough of these worms to fill all the 

* The ejjg^smusf not freeze. 

J The propriety of ibis treatment is, however, questionable. See p. 64, on over- 
heating' og-j^'5. 



39 [ 175 ] 

shelves when at their full growth, will fill only a small part; the first 
two weeks, therefore, where the object is to keep the shelves con- 
stantly filled with the greatest possible quantity of worms, something 
may be gained by having each crop hatched out on several different 
days, and each day's hatching kept by itself. Under this management, 
the hatching may be so arranged as to keep the shelves filled with 
worms of different ages, and of all sizes, which will enable the shelves 
to hold twice as many worms as they would otherwise admit of; and 
this management will also give the tenders constant and regular em- 
ployment; every few days they will have some new cocoons of silk to 
remove from the shelves, and some young w^orms to put on to supply 
their places. " 

Remarks, — In the w^arm States, which abound with many unem- 
ployed hands, the foregoing plan may be put in execution. But the 
trouble attending it will probably cause few, if any, to attempt it. 
Confusion and injury would moreover ensue, from having young 
worms on the same shelves with the worms spinning their cocoons, (a 
time when they require to be kept perfectly quiet,) even were it prac- 
ticable to accommodate both. Mr. M. has, however, demonstrated, 
that more than two crops of worms can be raised in those States where 
the heat continues long and steady. 

*' Messrs. Weiss and Youngman, of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 
raised two crops during the year 1825. The worms of the second 
crop appeared more vigorous and healthy than those of the first. 
They also produced larger cocoons, the silk of which was of a better- 
quality. ''* 

Two attempts, viz: in 1826 and 1827, to rear two crops of worms, 
by Messrs, Terhoeven, Philadelphia county, failed. The worms, from 
the eggs laid in the early part of the season, hatched, but they soon died. 



CHAPTER III. 



OF OTHER CATERPILLARS PRODUCING SILK. 

• The larva of the silk-moth is not the only insect which yields silk. 
Other insects produce the same substance, which, in point of strength, 
far exceeds that of the common silkworm. These insects are natives 
of India, and bear the names of Bughy or Tusseh,t and Arrindyt 
silkworms, and have been fully described, and figured in colors, by 
the late eminent naturalist. Dr. Roxburgh. || Both exceed the common 
silkworm in size ; the first especially; and the silk of which appears 
to be more valuable than that of the other kind. The Tusseh silk is 

* Dr. stout: letter to the Hon. C. Miner, of the House of Representatives. 

\ Phalaena Attacus Paphia, of Drury. 

\ Bombyx Cynthia. 

D Trans. Linnjean Soc. Lond. vol. 7- 



[ 175 ] 40 

found in such abundance in Bengal, and the adjoining provinces, a$ 
to have afforded the natives, from time inmiemorial, an ample supply 
of a most durable coarse silk, which is woven into a kind of clothj 
called Tusseh doot'hies, and much worn. The caterpillar, when 
full grown, is about four inches in length, and bulky in proportion; 
its color is green, with a lateral stripe of yellow, edged with redj 
when ready to spin, they envelope themselves in two or three leaves 
of the Jujube tree,* the vegetable upon which they feed. These leaves 
form an exterior envelope, which serves as a basin to spin tli^e cocoon 
in, which is then suspended, by a thick silk cord, from the branch of 
the tree. It remains nine months in the pupa or chrysalis state, and 
three months in that of the egg and caterpillar. The insect, when 
produced, expands to the breadth of five or six inches, and those of 
the female to eight inches. They immediately escape. The worms 
feed on the trees, and are watched day and night, to guard them agains^ 
birds. The natives of India pretend that these worms cannot be 
domesticated. The durability of the silk woven from it, is astonish- 
ing.! The arrindy silkworm is the Borahyx Cynthia of the natu- 
ralists. It is peculiar to the interior of Bengal, and is reared in a 
domestic state, as the common silkworms. The food of the caterpil- 
lar consists entirely of the leaves of the common castor-oil plant. X It 
is about three inches long when full fed ; the color pale green. The 
cocoon is white or yellowish, of a very soft and delicate texture, about 
two inches long, and three in circumference. The insect remains in 
the pupa state but twenty days. The filaments of the cocoon are so 
delicate, that it is impracticable to v«^ind off the silk; it is therefore 
spun like cotton, and woven into a coarse kind of white cloth, appa- 
rently of a loose texture, but of incredible durability ; the life of one 
person being seldom sufficient to wear out a garment made of it. The 
coverings of palanquins are made of this silk. Mr. Glass, British 
Army Surgeon,, sent some of it to his friends in England, and, upon 
being shown to some silk manufacturers, they gave it as their opinion, 
that it could be made into shawls, equal to any received from India. 
Another species is called Jarroo, the cocoons of which are spun in the 
^^oldest month, viz: January; the silk is of a darker color. The 
inales, when hatched, invariably fly away, but the females remain on 
the asseen trees, upon which the worms are placed to feed. These are 
aot impregnated by the males bred along with them, which fly away; 
but, in ten or twelve hours, another flight of males arrives, and impreg- 
nate the females, which deposite their eggs on the branches. The 
natives are able to retain part of the Jarroo cocoons for seed, which 

* Rhamnus Jujuba, L. or Byer of the Hindoos. They also feed on the leaves of 
the asstea Iree^ the Tcrminulia alata Glabra of Roxburgh. 

I ri'om a Chinese paper, on the culture of the Tusseh silk, which Mr. Hazard 
lent Mr. Latreille, he is convinced tliat the insects producing- it were the wild silk-, 
worms of China; and he conjectures that a part of the silk stuffs which the ancients 
procured by their maritime conimeixe with India, was made from the silk produced 
by these insects. R"g-iie animal, par Cuvicr. Tome 3 J, p. 564, Paris, ISlf. 

I Ricinus Palma Christi. 



41 [ 175 ] 

they hang out on the asseeii trees, when the proper season for the 
moth arrives. 

Du Halde"^ mentions that in the province of Chantong, there is 
found a species of silk in great quantities on trees and in tlie fields, 
which is spun and made into a stuff called Kient-chou. This silk is 
the production of little insects much like caterpillars, which do not 
spin cocoons, but very long threads; and, being driven about by the 
wind, hang upon the trees and bushes, and are gathered for use. The 
stuff is much coarser than that made of silk spun in houses. The 
worms are wild, and eat indifferently the leaves of the mulberry and 
other trees; they are of two kinds; one is much larger and blacker than 
the common silkworms, and are called Tsouen-Kien; the other, the 
Tyan-Kien, are much smaller. The silk of the first is of a reddish 
gray, that of the other is darker. The stuff made of these materials 
is between both colors; it is very close, does not fret, is vxry dural)le, 
washes like linen, and, when good, receives no damage by spots, 
even though oil be spilt on it. Dr. Robertson informs us, that the na- 
ture and productions of the wild silkworms are illustrated at greater 
length in the large collection of Memoirst on China, and by Pere de 
Mailla, in his voluminous history of China.! It must have been these 
worms to which Virgil referred: 

Velleraque utfolusdepectant tenuia seres. — Georg. Ub.n. 121. 

It was to the same species of silk to which Pliny refers, when he 
mentions '' the stuff made from a white downy substance, com.bed by 
the Seres from the leaves of trees, which differed from the wool-bear- 
ing trees (cotton) of the Island of Tylos in the Persian gulf." 

Don Luis Nee observed on certain trees growing in Chilpancingo, 
Tixtala, &c., in South America, ovate nests of caterpillars, eight 
inches long, which the inhabitants manufacture into stockings and 
handkerchiefs.§ Great numbers of similar nests, of a dense tissue, 
resembling Chinese paper, of a brilliant whiteness, and formed of dis- 
tinct and separable layers, the interior being the thinnest, and very 
transparent, were observed by Hum.boldt, in the province of Mechoa- 
can, and the mountains of Santarosa, at a height of 10,500 feet above 
the level of the sea, upon various trees. || The silk of these nests, 
which are the work of social caterpillars, was an object of commerce, 
even in the time of Montezuma; and the ancient Mexicnns pasted to- 
gether the interior layers, which may be written upon without prepa- 

* History of China, vol. 2d, p. 359, Lond. 1741. 

•j- Histoire des Sciences, les Arts, &c. des Chinois, torn. 2d, p. 575, &r. 

^ Tom. 13, p. 434, Robertson's disquisition concerning ancient India, note 33- 
Mr. Dclalauze, the autlior of the essay on silkworms, in tlie " Couj's d'Atrricidture,'* 
by Rosier, mentions these Chinese worms, on the authority of Madam I.ouin, who 
published a treatise on silkworms in Paris, in the yeai' 1757; but takes no notice of 
Du Halde, although his history of China was published in France nearly twenty years 
before. 
. § Annals of Botany, 2d, p. 104. 

li Political Essay on New Spain, vol. 3d, p. 59. They wcsre 7 to 7^ inches long by 
3 1 broad. 

'6 



[ 175 3 4U 

ration, to form a white glossy pasteboard. Handkerchiefs are still 
manufactured of it in the Intendancy of Oaxaca. 

In the tirst volume of the Transactions of the American Philoso- 
phical Society of Philadelphia, is a paper by the late Moses Bartram, 
of Philadelphia, in which are recorded some experiments in propaga- 
ting caterpillars from cocoons, found on the black haw, alder, and 
wild crab tree. Pie did not attempt to reel silk from either those he 
found wild, or from others which were formed in his own house: but 
subsequent and recent trials to produce a continuous thread from va- 
rious native cocoons, have repeatedly proved abortive. The Rev. Mr. 
Pullein, of England, has indeed recorded,* that from the pod of the 
moth called " isinglass" by Madam Merian, and which he received 
from Pennsylvania, he produced a thread of twenty single fibres, 
which bore a weight of fifteen and a half ounces; while the thread of 
the common silkworm, of the same size, always broke with fifteen 
ounces. Mr. Abbot also says, that he had heard of the cocoons of 
the Bombyx Cecropia having been carded, spun, and made into stock- 
ings, which washed like linen ; but that the insect will not bear con- 
finement. It feeds on the leaves of the cherry tree.t On the outside 
of the cocoon, the web is coarse; the inside is covered with silk like 
a silkworm cocoon. 

Miss Rhodes could not succeed in winding any silk from one of the 
jiative cocoons, which she received from South Carolina. J 

Madam Humbert§ had some coarse strong silk from cocoons of na- 
tive wild worms in Louisiana, but, although the cocoons were larger 
than those of the foreign worms, yet the quantity of silk was less than 
that produced by the latter. For the above reasons it is clear th?ft 
they are unworthy of attention. 



CHAPTER IV. 



OF MULBERRY TREES. 

Botanists have, hitherto, discovered only one native species of mul- 
berry tree in North America, viz. the red, (7norus rubra,) which has 
an extensive range. Michaux assigns the same limits north to it as 
to the majestic and beautiful tulip tree, (liriodendron tulipifera,) viz. 
the northern extremity of Lake Champlain; but it also grows in Massa- 
chusetts. Southward and westward, it abounds in all the States, and 
has been recently found as far west as the lower part of the river 
Canadian. || The leaves of the red mulberry tree are large, generally 

* Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. 1759, p. 54. 

f The natural history of the rarer Lepidopterous insects of Georgia, by John Ab- 
"boti, 2 vols. 4to Lond. 1797, plate 45. 

+ Anderson's Bee, Edin. vol. 11, p. 173. 

4 Du Pratt's Hist. Louisiana, p. 187. 

II Found by Dr. James, of tlic U, S. Army. Annals of t|je Lyceum, New Yor^j 
vol. 2d, p. 246. 



43 [ 175 ] 

Entire, but sometimes divided into two or three lobes, rounded, heart 
shaped, and denticulated, of a dark green color, thick texture, rough 
and uneven surface. The sexes are usually separate, though some- 
times they are found upon the same tree. The fruit is of a deep red 
fcolor, an oblong shape, and of an agreeable, acidulous sugary taste; 
it is composed of the union of a great number of small berries, each 
of which contains a minute seed. The tree often exceeds sixty feet ia 
height, and two feet in diameter. The wood is of a yellowish hue, 
approaching to lemon color, fine grained and compact, and when 
perfectly seasoned, is as durable as the white locust,* on which ac- 
count it is highly esteemed for posts, and, by ship and boat builders, 
for the upper and lower frames of vessels, knees, and floor timbers^ 
and the ribs of boats. In Tennessee, and probably in the other West- 
ern States, when a native forest is cut down, if the land be enclosed., 
a growth of red mulberry trees, it is said, soon takes its placet 

There are several varieties in the red mulberry tree, depending eE 
the letives and fruit: 

1. Leaves all orbiculated, (round.) 

2. do deeply lobed. 

3. do with three short lobe5« 

4. Fruit, berries nearly white. ' 

5. do do bluish purple. 

6. do do red and long. 

7. do do blackish red. 

Mr. C. C. Robin, a French traveller, mentions a species with leavej^ 
similar to the red mulberry in shape, but rough and shining on the 
upper surface, and downy underneath, with white fruit, and growing 
in Louisiana. Travels in L. &c. Paris, vol. 3d, p. 379. Mr. Darby 
notices one which he calls M. scahra, or Spanish mulberry, which is 
found in Opelousas. Description of Louisiana. Both these may be 
varieties of the moras rubra. 

That the leaves of the native red mulberry tree agree perfectly with 
silkworms, and yield very good silk, is a fact so well established by 
the experience of more than a century, that, to doubt it, would amount 
to an absurdity. It appears, how^evcr, that the leaves do not suit the 
constitution of French worms, and the author,! of the experiment, 
Which he made to satisfy himself, on this point, therefore decider 

* Bohinia pseudo-acacia. 

■{■The fact of the spontaneous succession of forest trees of a different kind from 
those which had formerly grown on the same land, when the first growth has been 
cut off or burnt, wa? known to the people of the United States from their early set- 
tlement; but when the enterprising ^t'Kensie (a) mentioned it, the truth of his state- 
ment was denied by the Edinburgh reviewer {h) of his work; although a similar fact had 
been, ten years before, noticed by Mr. Cartwright, in his Journal of a residence in 
Labrador, Lon. 1792, vol.3, p. 225. For some intea-estiug facts on this sul^jcct, see 
the p-ipers of Judge Peters, Mr. Adlum, and others, in the 2d vol, of the Memoirs 
of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture. 

i Mr. Delongchamps: Essai, sur I'llistoire des Muriers; etdcs Vers a Soic. Paris-, 

1824, 

(o) Voyage from MonTrpal fo the Frcr/.ennml PaoTic 0i'e<w<». in the rears 17J9 ami lf9l. Londoi), ]»»oV. 
(*) Vo!. 1 . XWi^. "^ 



[ 175 ] 44 

against the fitness ©f the tree for the food of thejnsects. He acknow- 
ledges that they eat the leaves of both the white and red species indis- 
criminately, when mixed, without evincing a preference for either, 
and that when they were placed in separate parcels within half aa 
inch of each other, they never left the latter until they were all de- 
voured. A s'milpr remark as to their promiscuous feeding on both 
species of leaves, had been previously and long since made in Louisi- 
ana, by Madam Humbert,-* a native of France, and was recently con- 
firmed by Mr. Seth Millington,t of Missouri. Madam H. adds, 
that the silk from the worms fed on the leaves of the native tree, was 
equally good as that produced by the white species, and that both 
''were stronger and finer than that of France." 

From the character of the leaves and fruit of a native mulberry 
tree growing in Washita,:}: there is reason to believe that it is a dif- 
ferent species from the Mo?'us rubra. 

The Jeives received, are three-lobed, three-nerved, unequally ser- 
rated; base subcordate entire; lobes, ovate oblong acute, or acu^ni- 
• nate; sinuses broad, with large interjected acute teeth. Both surfaces 
rough. 

The leaves are larger than the red species: upper lobes more ovate^ 
with base narrowed ; no pubescence beneath ; lateral lobes narrower than 
the middle. Teet.h of the sinuses, sometimes entire, sometimes with.- 
a few unequal teeth on the side. Upper sinuses broader than the lower. 

OF THE W^HITE MIJLBERRY TREE. 

The white mulberry tree, Morus alba, is a native of Asia, and was 
introduced into Italy by some of the survivers of the last crusade. 
Olivier de Serres relates, that the French who accompanied Charles 
H the Eighth, in his invasion of Italy, in 1494, struck with the abund- 

IP ance of the trees in that country, and with the profit derived from the 
culture of silk, determined to introduce it into France. This was 
done by Gruy Pape, of Saint Auban, after the peace, who planted it 
near Montelimart. In 1802, Faujas de Saint Fond saw the original 
tree, around which Mr. Lachaux, to evince his respect for this monu- 
ment of agriculture, and parent of all the white mulberry trees in 
France, had built a wall. There are several species of this tree, and 
numerous varieties, the result of cultivation, soil, climate, and the 
play of nature. The forms of the leaves are extremely variable. 
Mr. Audibert,§ an experienced cultivator in France, says, *Uhat the 
same tree will have leaves divided into several lobes, when young; 
and, when it becomes old, the}^ will be entire. Others have the second 
crop of leaves differently formed from the first; some again have en- 
tire leaves in the spring, and lobed leaves in the autumn. Hence, it 
is extremely difficult to assign positive characters to the different va- 
rieties, particularly when they show no diversity in appearance, except 
in the shapes of the leaves." 

* Du Pratt's Hist, of Louisiana, p. ISf. 
j- Answer t/ the silk circular. 

t The leaves were sent by Judge Br}-, to the Secretary of the Treasury. 
^ Essai, &c. p. 21. 



45 t 175 ] 

On the culture of the White Mulberry Tree. 

All the practical writers on this sahject, agree that the proper soils 
Cor the mulberry tree are dry, sandy, or stony; the more stony the 
better, provided the roots of the trees can penetrate among them. 
The situation should be high: low, rich, and moist land, never produce 
nourishing leaves, however vigorously the tree may grov/. They are 
always found to be too watery. 

The modes of propagation are, 1, by seed; 2, grafting; 3, buddings 
4, layers; 5, cuttings; 6, suckers. 

1. The ripe fruit may be sown in drills in ground previously pre- 
pared; or the. seeds may be washed out of the pulp, and mixed with 
an equal quantity of sand or fine mould, and then sown. They should 
be covered about a quarter or half an inch deep. The seeds will soon 
vegetate if the ground be rich, and will live through the winter, un- 
less the cold should be unusually severe.* In that case, they should 
be covered with straw or long manure: in the course of the next sea- 
son thin the plants, so that they may be a foot apart. Seeds intended 
to be sown in the spring, or to be kept, should be washed out: for 
they are apt to heat or mould if allowed to remain in the fruit. Every 
tiller of land knows the fertilizing effects of frost and snow; the land^ 
therefore, destined for the spring sowing, should be dug or ploughed 
in the preceding autumn, left rough all winter, and harrowed or raked 
fine as soon as the season will permit, and the seed sown in drills. 
The young plants must be watered in dry weather, and weeds careful- 
ly kept down. Weeds will not only stint the growth of the plants, 
but cause diseases in them, which may affect the future vigor and health 
of the tree. When a year old, some of them will be fit to plant in nur- 
sery rows; the same plants may remain in the seed bed a second year, 
and then be transplanted; the plants at two feet distance from one an- 
other, that there may be room for cleansing and dressing the ground. 
At transplanting, cut off some of the roots, especially those that are 
ragged or decayed, and the tap root, to force out lateral roots; and also 
the tops, at six or seven inches from the ground. In France, they 
transplant just after the fall of the leaf in the autumn. When the 
plants in the nursery are sprung, strip off the side buds, and leave 
none but such as are necessary to form the head of the tree. The buds' 
which are left, should be opposite to one another. \i the plants in the 
nursery do not shoot well the first year, in the month of March fol- 
lowing cut them over, about seven inches from the ground; this will 
make them grow briskly. They should also be watered with diluted 
barn-yard water. 

When the plants are grown to the size of one inch in diameter, plani, 
them out in the fields where they are to remain; make the holes six 
feet square, and dress the ground two feet round the plants; 
trim the roots, and press the earth on the roots as the holes are filled. 
During the first of planting out, leav^c all the buds which the youn<^ 
trees hare pushed out on the top, till the following spring, when none 

* A quantity of plants from seed thu*; treated, liver] tlirontj-li the rol.l wJntc" 
nf 1825-6, m Pbiladelplua.. 



C 175 3 



46 



are to be left but tlirce or four branches to form the head of the treef. 
The buds on thssc branches should be on the outside of them, that the 
shoots may describe a circle round the stem, and that the interior oi 
the tree rv- v^ be kept open; and as the buds come out, take off all those 
which appear upon the body of the tree. For several years after, 
every spring, open the heads of the trees when too thick of wood, and 
cut off any branch which crosses or takes the lead of the rest; leaving 
two buds on the outside of every trimmed branch. Count Verri,* an 
experienced cultivator of the mulberry tree, recommends to leave only 
two buds at the end of each branch — preferring those which are out- 
side and opposite to each other — and when three buds appear together, 
to leave the middle one, which is always most vigorous, and to detach 
the ^two on each side of it. If the superior buds do not push well, the 
two next lower ones, only, must be left Every farmer and nurseryman, 
knows the very great importance of dressing the ground round young 
trees, twice in the course of the year, and of planting stakes by them, 
to ensure an upright, straight growth, and to prevent their being shaken 
by wind, or levelled by storms. 

2 and 3. Grafting and budding may be performed on the mulberry 
tree, in the modes usually adopted for other trees. So greet is the pre- 
judice in Italy in favor of grafting the mulberry trees, that Dandolo 
says, '^even the hedge mulberry trees are grafted.'^ The reason for 
this is, that the grafted tree yields more leaves than those produced 
from seed; but he decides, as will be hereafter seen, in favor of the 
latter. Nevertheless, as it may be wished to propagate a particular 
species, or variety of mulberry tree, the leaves of which are found to 
produce better silk than common, the process may be adopted which 
is generally preferred in France for grafting the mulberry and large 
chestnut, and is as follows: 

A branch must be selected, sound, and of the growth of the preced- 
ing year, when possible, and while the sap is running: this is to be cut 
off some inphes from the trunk, or further off, according to its strength 
©r size. The annexed cut represents a piece of a branch, separated; 
but we must suppose it attached to the trunk. From the 
point A to the point B, the bark is to be slit in strips 
by the edge of a pruning knife; and these strips are to 
be gently detached from the wood, (without bruising 
them,) as is seen at E. While an assistant is engaged 
in this operation, another prepares a cylinder, or tube^ 
C, having a bud, D, or several buds, and of equal dia- 
meter to that of the wood, A, when barked. Then, 
without loss of time, it is to be slid upon the wood, un- 
til its lower extremity touches the basis of the strips. If 
the cylinder applied to the wood is proportioned to it^ 
and if it covers all the wood, and unites exactly with it, 
the strips are to be cut off below the cylinder, by a cir- 
cular cut; and after having made the two barks joiuy 




* 1,,'Avt de Cultlver Les Muriers. A Lyon, p. 60. 182Gj 



•47 [ 175 ] 

the united parts are to be covered with a mixture of turpentine, wax, 
and rosin, spread on thin leather.* Every boy is acquainted with 
the mode of procuring a pipe to make a whistle from a willow, by cut- 
ting off a branch, and gently beating the bark, until it loosens from the 
wood: the mulberry pipe is to be procured in the same manner. 

When it is difficult to find a branch, the bark of which will fit ex- 
actly the branch which is cut in strips, the following expedient may- 
be adopted: If it be too narrow, a branch must be slit longitudinally, 
on the side opposite to the bud, and the cylinder being taken of!', is to 
be applied to the wood; then a part of a strip is to be raised, that cor- 
responds to the deficiency in the cylinder, and must be divided in its 
whole length, of a breadth wanting in the ring, so that this division 
fills the vacant space: Finally, raise up and surround it with the strips, 
as already directed. If the bark cylinder be too large, cut it to the 
diameter of the wood, then fit the edges as nearly as possible, and cover 
them with the strips, t 

The propagation by budding would seem to demand particular at- 
tention, from the success attending the operation by Mr. Tvlillington, of 
Missouri, who says: *'Witha view to increase my little stock of 
white mulberry trees, I have, this past summer, (1826,) budded them 
on our native stocks: these buds took well; and such as I put in before 
the middle of July, Vv^ere forced out immediately, by cutting off the 
stocks above the buds. Some of these buds have already (October 27,) 
made limbs more than two feet long. The buds I have put in since 
the middle of July, I shall not attempt to force out until next spring. 
I consider this the best mode to manage the buds. Budding is more 
expeditious and surer than engrafting; and when it fails, docs not in- 
jure the stock so much as this mode. Native stocks to engraft or bud 
on, can be procured with the greatest ease; and the trees thus raised, 
would not be liable to be diseased in their roots, as foreign trees; and 
these engrafted or budded trees would grow much faster, and furnish 
leaves much sooner, and of a larger size and better quality. This will 
not be doubted by those who have observed how much faster an en- 
grafted tree grows, and how much larger its leaves are, than those of 
a seedling tree." 

4. Laying. — The propagation of trees by layers is only necessary 
for such trees as do not grow freely by cuttings, or of which seeds 
cannot be easily procured; but as neither of these reasons apply to 
the mulberry tree, no directions on the subject are necessary. Those 
who wish information on it, may consult McMahon's American Gar- 
dener's Calendar, a work which should be in the possession of every 
country gentleman in the United States. 

5. Cuttings. — These should be taken from perpendicular shoots, 

* This composition was preferred by an eminent farmer and horticulturist, the late 
Joseph Cooper, of New Jersey, as it is not liable to contract and fall off' by the heat 
of summer, or to be washed off by rain — accidents which often happen to the masses 
of clay put round grafts. 

t Memoirs of Philadelphia Society for Promoting- Agriculture, vol. 3j from " Kc- 
sier's Cours Complet d' Agric." vol. 5, p. 3'?4. 



[ 175 ] 4S 

and particularly those that terminate branches:* these will certainly* 
produce straight and handsome trees; whiie cuttings taken from hori- 
zontal branches, will ever have an inclination to grow in a spreading 
manner. The cuttings should be of the last summer's shoots, and 
from six to fifteen inciies in length. Plant them in rows, in shady 
borders, early in the spring, and about two-thirds their length in the 
ground; close the earth well about them, and in dry weather let them 
be watered. After a year, they may be transplanted into open nur- 
isery rows, if well rooted. 

6. Suckers. — These may be separated from the parent plants early 
in the spring, each w^ith some roots, and planted either in nursery 
rows for a year or two, or the largest in the place intended for them 
permanently. It is essential for the success and quick growth of 
young plants, that the ground around them should be fine, so that the 
tender roots may not be obstructed in their progress. Slugs and 
SNAILS are very destructive to mulberry plants, and will eat down 
jiuml)ers of them in one night, and, in a moist season, will ruin a nur- 
sery, if not prevented. To prevent their depredations, surround the 
beds with soot, hot lim.e, or ashes, sprinkling a fresh parcel when they 
have been wet with rain; but no soot should be put on the beds, bemg 
too acrid for the plants. If the insects appear, destroy them after sun-. 
set. Mr. PuUeint says the best defence against them is a hair rope, 
which should be trimmed so as to be made as bristly as possible; thi» 
being pinned to the ground round the border of the bed, will so prick 
their tender skins that they would not venture to cross it. 

In order to secure early food for silkworms, the cultivator should 
plant a hedge of mulberry trees, or a few young trees in a warm situa-" 
tion. In the spring they should be covered with straw, or any other 
way, at night, to prevent injury from frost. As the white mulberry 
tree grows readily, with proper care, J they may be easily multiplied. 
They may be planted along the fences of a farm, and if the branches 
be wattled through 'the rails, they will form an impenetrable hedge, 
and the fence will never require renewing. A great advantage will 
attend such a hedge, viz: the ease with which the leaves can be ob- 
tained: the avoidance of falls by young persons from large trees, is 
another consideration in favor of propagating mulberry hedges. This 
accident may also be prevented by annuall)^ pruning the trees, and 
restraining their upright growth to the extent they are commonly per- 
mitted to attain. The quantity and quality of the leaves will also be 
thus greatly increased. Practical writers, particularly Sauvage, dwell 

* These are termed cock-shoots by gardeners. 

I On the culture of silk. London, 1758, p. 32. 

^ A number of these trees, which were plnnted by the late Joseph Cooper, of New 
Jersey, measured from twenty to twenty-six inches in diameter, after standing- twen~ 
t>y-three years. — Mem. Phila. Soc. for Prom. Agric. vol. 5, p 190. The MS. jour- 
nal, left by the Rev. Mr. Baltzius, of the German settlement of Ebenezer, Georg-ia, 
under date of March, 1757, mentions, that two trees in front of the Parsonage^ 
which had been planted ten years before, measured three feet eight inches in cir- 
cumference, lie saw another five years old, which measured two feet round the 
trunk. 



49 [ 175 ] 

upon the importance of annually pruning trees, for these reasons; and 
a gentleman, recently returned from an extensive tour through Europe 
and the East, states, that the cultivators of silk, particularly in Syria, 
were unanimous as to the superiority of the silk produced by worms fed 
on the leaves of trees annually pruned, over that made by worms nou- 
rished by trees, the growth of which was unrestrained. The American 
cultivator is urged to attend to this hint, whether he feeds silkworms 
on the native or foreign tree. 

The white mulberry trees which have been planted in Massachusetts 
and New Hampshire, grow well, and are not injured by frost* They 
have not yet been introduced into Maine, but there is no reason to 
doubt their flourishing in that State, and also in Vermont. Should, 
however, the cold prove injurious to them, the Tartarian mulberry, 
which is cultivated for silkworms in the silk-rearing province of Zac- 
syn, in Russia, might be easily introduced, t 

There are several varieties of the white mulberry tree, two of which 
have white berries, one red, and the other black. X There are two 
varieties in the leaf; one has a leaf deeply indented, and supposed to 
contain little nourishment; the leaf of the other is larger, and not much 
indented, nor lobed. The common grafted mulberry is a variety of 
the first of these two, and itself comprises the following varieties: 
1st, with white berries; 2d, with red berries; 3d, with black berries; 
4th, with a large leaf, called the mulberry of Tuscany; 5th, with a 
middle-sized leaf, dark green, called faglia giazzola; 6th, with a 
small leaf, of a dark color, rather thick, called double leaf, more diffi- 
cult to pick, and the best calculated for silkworms.§ Besides these, 
there are numerous other species and varieties in Europe, the result of 
cultivation; but the detail of their names, and their description, would 
be useless. A late French writer, and a practical man^|| after having 
taken up several pages of his work in describing them, decides in fa- 
vor of those called Colombasse and Colombassette, as being favorable 
to the health of the silkworms, and as yielding the greatest quantity 
and the best quality of silk. The leaves are small, thin, light, and 
silky. The fruit, when at full maturity, is yellowish, and very large. 
He also approves of the species called the rose mulberry; the leaves of 
which are larger, and of a deeper green than the preceding species: the 
fruit is reddish, and as large as that of the other species.lT 

* Answers to the silk circular. 

I The white mulberry tree stands the winter in Sweden — a country quite as cold, in 
the winter, as Maine; and also that of Scotland. — Anderson's Bee, Edinb. vol. 18, p.. 
82. At Pekin, in China, it also flourishes, although the thermometer descends, al- 
most every winter, to 20 deg. below 0. — ib. 

% In New Jersey, there is a white mulberry tree with purple fruit. 
§ Dandolo, p. 30. 

II Essai s\U' I'Histoire, &c. p. 23. 

\ Mr. William Prince, of Flushing-, Long Island, has imported from Europe, and 
has for sale, several of the most approved varieties of the wiiitc mulberry tree. A 
valuable addition to the stock of mulberry trees already in the country, li.is been re- 
cently made by Mr. F. Dusar, of Philadelphia, who opened a subscription for the 
purpose, and imported 400 young trees and 1000 plants from the South of France. 
The name of the species was not mentioned by liis correspond'^ut. 



[ 175 ] 50 

There are five different substances in the mulberry leaves: 1st, The 
solid or fibrous substance: 2d, The coloring matter: 3d, Water: 4th, 
The saccharine substance: 5th, The resinous substance. 

The saccharine matter is that which nourishes the insect, and forms 
its animal substance. The resinous substance is that which, separat- 
ing gradually from the leaf, attracted by the animal* organization, 
fills the two silk vessels. According to the different proportions of 
the elements which compose the leaf, it follows, that cases may occur, 
in which a greater weight of leaf may yield less that is useful to the 
silkworm, as well for its nourishment as with respect to the quantity 
of silk obtained from the animal. Thus the leaf of the black mulberry 
(a native of Europe,) produces abundant silk, and strong, but coarse. 
The leaves of white mulberry trees, in high lands, exposed to cold 
dry winds, and in a light soil, produce a large quantity of strong silk, 
of the purest and finest quality. The leaf of the same tree, planted in- 
damp situations, and in a stiff soil, produces less silk, and of a quality 
less pure and fine; but the chief cause which influences the fineness of 
the silk, is the degree of temperature in which the silkworm is reared, 
as, it is hoped, will be demonstrated in the course of this work. 

According to Dandolo, the leaves of the broad-leaved white mul- 
berry, are little nutritious. The next has a middle size leaf, thick, 
and of a dark green color. The best mulberry leaf, of any species, is 
that which is called the double leaf; it is small, not very succulent, of 
a dark green color, shining, and contains little water; which may be 
easily ascertained by drying some of them: the tree produces them in 
great abundance. 

An old tree produces better leaves than young trees; as the tre^ 
grows older the leaves diminish in size. 

The leaf of the wild [seedling] tree, contains the greatest proportion 
of both the nutritive and silky substances.t This opinion of Dandolo, 
in favor of the wild mulberry tree in preference to the grafted tree, as 
food for silkworms, is thus supported: ^'Ihave^ says he, ascertained 
the following facts: 

^^1. That 14i lbs. of wild mulberry leaves, will produce a pound and 
a half of cocoons, while SOJt lbs. of the leaves of the grafted rnulberry, 
^re required to yield the same quantity. 

^^ 2. That 72 lbs. of cocoons, proceeding from silkworms fed oa 
leaves of wild mulberry, give about 14 oz. of very fine silk; whilst 
generally the same weight of silkworms, fed with leaves of the graft- 
ed mulberry, only yield eleven or twelve ounces of silk. 

'' 3. That the silkworms fed on the wild leaves, are always brisker, 
and have better appetites. 

The result is, that of taking two trees of equal age and vigor, the 
grafted tree yields 50 lbs. of leaves, and the wild tree only 30 lbs. ; 
the weight of nutritious substance will be nearly equal in each." 

<-^ To this authority may be added that of Mr. Martlcroy, an expert- 
enced cultivator in France, who found that silkworms, fed with the 

* More correctly, decomposed, and assimilated by the worm. 
I Dandolo, chap. 3. 



51 [ 175 3 

leaves of the seedling mulberry tree, were more healthy, vigorous, 
and less subject to diseases, than those which are fed upon the leaves 
of the grafted trees. * 

On the proportion of leaves to an acre or more of trees, and to silk 
produced from ttiem,. Cautions on picking leaves. 

It is impossible to ascertain with any degree of tolerable accuracy, 
the quantity of leaves which an acre, or even a single mulberry tree 
will produce, owing to the operation of one or more of the numerous 
causes influencing their production: such as the particular species of 
trees; the greater or less care taken of them, in their early stages of 
growth; their position, and distance from one another, when planted 
out; the soil, and especially bad or injudicious pruning, or total ne- 
glect of this necessary measure. The estimates are, accordingly, very 
various. Mr. Fitch says, that one acre of full grown trees, set one 
and a half rods apart, will produce 40 lbs. of silk. One tree yielded 
food for worms, which gave four pounds of silk. Mr. Tufts confirms 
this calculation, but does not state the distance at which the trees 
stood from one another. Mr. Storrs says, that ^^ a full grown tree 
will feed 6,000 worms, which will produce one and a half pounds of silk. 
An acre of trees will produce 60 lbs of raw silk in one season." INIr. 
R. Falley, now of Ohio, had IS lbs. of silk from about 100 trees, part 
of which were young, in Massachusetts. In the year 1789, nearly 
four pounds were produced from seven trees, and one pound from 
eight trees, eight years old from the seed.t According to Dandolo, 
it is a certain fact, that, if silkworms are well managed, 21 lbs. of 
mulberry leaves will be sufficient to obtain a pound and a half of co- 
coons. Twenty pounds four ounces, will feed worms enough to pro- 
duce a pound and a half of cocoons. In Dalmatia, he obtained one 
pound and a half of cocoons from 15 lbs. of leaves, which yielded one 
pound and a half of silk: ninety-seven pounds eight ounces of leaves, 
will produce seven and a half pounds of cocoons. Miss Rhodes could 
scarcely support 10,000 worms on the leaves of twelve large trees in 
England. J According to Lambruschini, 100 pounds of clean leaves 
will feed worms which will produce six pounds of silk.§ Dandolo 
has prescribed the proportions of leaves which will be required for 
five ounces, and one ounce of silkworms in their progressive stages, 
and lays down the weight of wood which will yield certain quantities 
of cocoons, produced by different species of the insect: as he writes 
from ample experience, his directions and conclusions may be safely- 
relied on. [vSee chapter 13.] He recommends that the trees, when 
transplanted, be not stripped for three years, and to thin and prune the 
branches in the fourth year. In the fifth year, they may be stripped 
without danger; but he advises cultivators to permit a tree to rest one 
year after being stripped, in order to recover from the loss of its leaver 

* A Stephenson: Trans. Soc. Arts, F^ond. vol. 4,). 
■f- Columbian Ma^. Pliilad. Vol. 4, p. 61. * 

\. Trans. Soc. Arts, Londoit, vo) -1, p. 153. 
^ Mem. Soc. Georg^ophiles, of Florence, vol. 4, p. 41 T 



[ 175 ] 5^2 

This reasonable caution should be attended to, particularly with young 
trees; for leaves are considered as the lungs of a plant or tree, and 
mainly contribute, by the absorption of moisture, and the principle of 
vegetation from the atmosphere, to promote their growth and vigor. 
If deprived of these organs, annually, their growth will be greatly im- 
peded. 

The people of Connecticut and Massachusetts are of opinion, that 
trees only two years old, may be stripped without injury, provided 
the leaves near the ends of the branches are left,* and the main stem 
be not touched.! Count Verri recommends to pass the hands from 
the lower part of a branch to the top, and to pick the leaves in a bag, 
the mouth of which is to be kept open by a hoop, with a hook to sus- 
pend it. As practical rules, these directions are worth attention; but, 
in observing the last, it is essential that the leaves be not bruised. 

The experiment was tried in Connecticut, of feeding worms with 
young mulberry plants, the seeds of which were sown broadcast, and 
the plants mown as w^anted. The roots soon died. As the leaves of 
such plants contain so much less nourishment than those of old trees, 
the measure cannot be recommended, except for early food. 

To form a Mulberry Hedge. 

Choose grafted mulberry plants of one year old, and place them 
eighteen inches apart, in a furrow prepared some months before. To 
these may be added grafted plants of two years old, which have grown 
well, and which have been cut off to increase their vigor: but they 
must be separated from the others, to prevent irregularity in the hedge. 
Cut them at four or six inches from the ground, leaving two buds op- 
posite each other: remove all the rest. In this way, the stalk has two 
vigorous branches the first year. In the following spring cut one of 
these two branches on the same side, at about one foot from the ground, 
so that each plant has a short and a long one. Bend, horizontally on 
the same side also, one after another, all the preserved branches, and fix 
them with willow-withs, so that they may form a line parallel to the 
earth, and leave untouched the entire branches. Experience has 
taught, that, if their extremities be cut, they grow slowly, and even die. 
At the commencement of the. third year, the plants will have branches 
to form a hedge. Then cut them about two feet from the ground, but 
do not use the leaves. This plan has the following advantages: 

1. The mulberry plants being grafted, and well arranged, and those 
of the first year being separated from those of the second, the hedge 
will grow with force and regularity. 

2. The plants which have been cut down will push out near to the 
ground, and furnish numerous branches. When a plant dies, replace 
it by layers from an adjoining one; if a new plant be substituted it 
rarely succeeds. The leaves from the layers must not be pulled dur- 
ing the three first years.:}: 

*Mr. E. Williams, ^lansfield. Conn.; letter to the writer. Z. Storrs, Esq. Conn. 
\ Georg-e A. Tufts, Esq. Mass. 
\ Count Verri, Sur les Muriers. 



53 [ 175 ] 

M. Bonafous* says, that the leaves of the paper mulberry tree agree 
perfectly well with silkworms in their fifth age. The character of this 
writer, and his great personal experience, entitle him to full confidence, 
and there can be no reason to doubt that the worms to which he gave 
these leaves eat them without injury j nevertheless, other silkworms 
were less fortunate. M. Deslongchampst says, " that, of 100 silkworms 
to which he gave nothing but the leaves of the paper mulberry tree, 
92 died; and the remaining eight, which survived the rest thirty -six 
days, would also certainly have died, if, at this time, he had not sub- 
stituted the leaves of the white mulberry. This new food enabled them 
to live twenty and twenty-two days longer, and to spin their cocoons; 
but these were so small that eight of them did not weigh more than two 
ordinary cocoons. ^^ From the above statement, it appears that M. D. 
gave the leaves of the paper mulberr}^ to young worms; whereas Mr. 
B. confines their use to the fifth age— a time when they have ac- 
quired their full growth, and their appetite is voracious. This va- 
riation in the treatment may readily account for the different re- 
sults of the two cultivators.:]: The experiment with the paper 
mulberry leaves, in the fifth age, is worth trying with 50 or 
100 worms; and, if made, it is requested that the result may be commu- 
nicated to the public. 

The black mulberry tree having been mentioned as suitable for the 
Southern States, it may be proper to say something on the subject. 
The leaves of this tree, it appears, are preferred in Spain, § where 
superior silk is made. They are said to be much more nutritious than 
those of the white mulberry; but a late practical writer || denies this 
position: for, in the year 1823, he fed some silkworms on the leaves 
of both these trees; and the cocoons of 100 of them which had eaten 
the black, weighed from two to three grains less, than others of another 
100 worms which fed on the white. Mr. Nysten also says, that it is 
late in attaining its full growth, and difficult to propagate, either by 
grafting or by sowing the seeds. The leaves also come out full ten 
days later than the white. This is a serious objection, as early food 
for the worms is of primary importance: finally, the black is compar- 
atively a tender plant. For these reasons, it cannot compete with 
the native red, or the foreign white mulberry tree. 

* De I'Education des Vers a Sole, p. 11. Paris, 1824. 

f Essai, &c. p. 91. 

^ Judge Bry, of Washita, says he tried to force his silkworms to eat the leaves of 
the paper mulberry, by starving them, and then offering- the leaver?: they bit them, 
and then left off eating. He believes they would have perisliod for food, had he 
act giren them the leaves of the native mulberry, on which they fed with avidity. 

§ Townsend's Travels in Spain. Swinburne's do. 

U Deslongchamps, p. 6. 



CHAPTER V. 

OF THE LABORATORY. 

My laboratoiT, says Dandolo, is constructed to contain twenty ounces 
of eggs of silkworms; it is 30 feet wide, 77 long, 12 feet high, and, 
when reckoned to the top of the roof, 21 feet high. There are six 
rows of hurdles or wicker trays, about two feet six inches in width 
each, placed two and two, with four passages between them, each three 
feet wide. These hurdles or feeding frames maj^ be made of cane, 
or basket work, to admit air from below, and must, in course, be pro- 
portioned to the number of worms. Those of Dandolo, for five ounces 
of eggs, are from 29 to 37 inches in breadth, and from 18 to 24 feet in 
length, and of equal sizes, that, when put above one another, they may 
not extend out irregularly. They are covered with paper to hold the 
worms. On the ledges or borders, may be painted the number of 
square feet contained on the surface; for instance, supposing the frame 
to be 20 feet long, and three feet wide, the number to inscribe Would 
be ^'60 square feet.^' Posts are driven in between the trays, and 
strips of wood are fastened to the posts horizontally, to support the 
trays, between which there is a space of five inches and a half, to allow 
the air to pass freely.* 

There are 13 unglazed windows, with Venetian shutters outside, 
and paper window frames inside; under each window, near the floor, 
ventilators, or square apertures of about 13 inches, that they may be 
closed by a neatly fitted sliding panel, so as to permit the air to cir^ 
culate, and blow over the W'hole floor. When the air is not wanted, 
the paper frames may be closed. The Venetian shutters may be open- 
ed or shut, at will. When the air is still, and the temperature of the 
interior and exterior is nearly equal, all the window frames may 
be opened, and the Venetian shutters must be closed. 

There are eight' ventilators, in two lines, in the floor and in the 
ceiling, placed perpendicularly, opposite to one another, in the centre 
of the passages between the hurdles or trays. They have sliding pan- 
els made of thick glaes, to close them, and to admit light from above. 
As the air of the floor ventilators ascends, and that of the ceiling ven- 
tilators descends, it must pass through the trays. There are, also, 
other six ventilators, made in the floor, to communicate with the rooms 
beneath. Three of the thirteen windows are at the end of the house; 
and at the opposite end are three doors, constructed so as to admit 
more oi- less air, as may be required. These doors open into another 
hall, 36 feet long and 30 wide, which forms a continuation of the 
large laboratory, and contains hurdles sufficiently raised to facilitate 
the care of the worms. In this hall, there are six windows, and six 
ventilators under them, nearly on a level w^ith the floor, and also 
four ventilators in the ceiling. There are six fire-places in the great 
laboratory, one in each angle, and one on each side of the centre, and 
a largo stove in the middle; glass oil burners, that give no smoke, are 
used to give light at night. Between the hall and the great laboralorj', 

* Tlic mtule in which the trays are arranj^ed, is seen in plate 1, fi^. 2ci. 



55 [ 175 2 

ihere is a small room, having two large doors, the one commimicathig 
with the laboratory, 'the other with the hall. In tlie centre of the 
floor, there is a large square opening, which communicates witli the 
jow^er part of the building. This is closed with a wooden folding- 
door; this aperture is used for throwing down the litter and rubbish 
of the laboratory, ana for admitting mulberry leaves, which can be 
drawn up by a hand-puJley. Such is the construction of his laborato- 
ry, in which he places the worms after their third casting or mouiiiag. 

The above particular description of a very large laboratory, will be 
valuable to those who may hereafter engnge in the business upon au 
extensive scale. It will be seen that the great ol)jects aimed at, are 
convenience, the preservation of a proper temperature, and the free 
circulation of the air in the department; and the American cultivator 
must attend to these, as cardinal points, whatever may be the dimen- 
sions of the building or apartment in which the worms are reared. 

All buildings are proper for receiving the silkworms, provided that, 
in proportion to their sizes, there be one or more fire-places, two or 
more ventilators in the ceiling, on a level with the floor, and one or 
more windows, by which light may be admitted, and yet not sunshine. 

In the United States, the house erected expressly for the purpose of 
rearing silkworms, should be placed in the coolest and most airy situ- 
ation attainable, and in the shade of trees, if possible, because it r^ 
always in our power to increase the heat of the apartment, when ne- 
cessary, by means of a stove or open fire-place; but it is not so easy to 
guard against a sudden increase of heat in the weather, and wliich 
may nearly defeat the labors of the season, if it should occur in the 
fifth age, when the worms are nearly done eating, as will be seen 
hereafter. 

The apparatus of the Rev. Mr. Swayne* is to be recommended, on ac- 
count of the small space occupied by it, the neatness in wliich it ena- 
bles persons using it to keep the apartment, and the ease with which 
the caterpillars can be fed, and their litter removed. It is particularly 
valuable to those who are restrained in room. 

" This apparatus consists of a wooden frame, four feet two inches high, 
each side sixteen inches and a half wide, divided into eight partitions, 
by small pieces of wood, which form grooves, in which the slides 
run, and are thus easily thrust in or drawn out of the fro me. The 
upper slide {a) is of paper only, and designed to receive the worms ds 
soon as hatched; the two next, b b, are of catgut, the threads about one 
tenth of an inch distant from one another; these are for the insects, 
when a little advanced in size; the four lower ones, marked c, are 
of wicker work, the openings through which the chmg is to fall being 
about a quarter of an inch square. Under each of these, as well as 
under those of catgut, are slides made of paper, to prevent the (hmg 
of the worms falling on those feeding below them. JNlr. Swayne after- 
wards found that netting may be substituted ^vith advantage, in the 
room of wicker bottoms. The meshes of the netting were about ludf 
;in inch square. 

* Trans. Soc. Arts, London, vol. 7, p. 148. 



[ 1^5 ] 



56 



" The caterpillars are to be kept in the second and third drawers, 
until their dung and litter do not readily fall through, and then to be 
removed to the drawers with wicker bottoms, and fed thereon, till 
they show symptoms of being about to spin. Each wicker drawer will 
afford sufficient room for five hundred worms, when grown to their 
full size." 

In order to give room for an increased stock of caterpillars, spare 
drawers should be made to fit the three upper apartments with wicker 
bottoms, (or, in preference^ with bottoms of split rattans, ) which may 
be used for full grown v/orms. The annexed cut will give an accurate 
idea of Mr. Swayne's apparatus. 

The shelves of the feeding frames of Messrs. Terhoeven, of Phila- 
delphia county, are four feet square, and are fixed to upright posts; 
they have two sets in one room, with passages between and around 
them. This size enables a person to reach any part of them. Over 
the shelves, are frames, placed on elects, and filled with split rattans, 
at proper distances, to permit the litter to fall through. * 




'"'^ • mm il 



mw- — _____ m 111 



a 
h 
b 




* See explanation of the plates, Plate 2d, fig". 3. 



Ai t 175 ] 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE AUT OF REARING SILKWORMS. 

Of the care necessary previously to the hatching of the Silkivoryir— 

Jive otmces. 

The first thing necessary to commence the operations of tlie year 
is to detach the eggs of the silkworm from the clotlis upon Vvijich 
they were deposited, and to prepare them for hatching.* 

In past times, the cultivators imagined ths^t the silkworm miglit 
be hatched at random, and spontaneously ; and that, if it were neces- 
sary to make an artificial climate, it was enough to use the heat of 
beds, or the natural heat of the body, or the kitclien fire, &:c. and 
similar means. t It is now allowed that these methods, at best unrer- 
lain, are often pernicious to the insect. However, since luxury has 
invented the hot-house, to enable us by an artificial atmosphere to 
raise exotics, it was surely natural to apply this invention to llic im^ 
provement of the cultivation of silkworms; and yet it is but vcry 
iately that this application of the invention has been thought of, which 
(Enables us in a few days to hatch, with ease and certain t}^, any given 
quantity of silkworms, and rear them favorably. 

It is proposed to state, in this chapter, the care which the eggs re- 
quire, to prepare them for the favorable developement of the worm, 
and the care necessary to fix and continue the requisite degree of tem- 
perature. We shall thus treat of, 

First. The preliininar}^ preparation of the eggs. 

Second. Of the necessity of fixing, by the thermometer, tlie tem- 
perature calculated to favor thfe hatching of the eggs, and the rearing 
of the silkworm. 

Third. Of the hot-house, or stove-room, in which they must be 
hatched. 

Fourth. Of the hatching. 

I. We suppose the eggs to be good, and well preserved, as shall bt> 
indicated in the course of this work. 

When the mulberry leaves are about to open, the cloths upon which 
the eggs are fastened, should be put into a pail of water, steeped up 
and down, that they may be thoroughly soaked, for nearly six minutes, 
which will be sufficient to dissolve the gummy substance by which 
the eggs are stuck to the cloth. There must be, in this room, tabiev*t> 

* These directions to scrape off the eggs from the cloth or paper upon which t]n>y 
were laid by the moth, are given in the European ])ookson silkworms, and yet would 
seem to be unnecessary. Careful observation of the insects when liatching, has satis- 
fied the writer that they even find less difficulty in leaving their sliells when Ihey re- 
mained fixed, than when they were detached. In tins opinion he is sustained by two 
persons familiar with the rearing of silkworms. 

f .This is the general practice, also, in the United States; but it is to be hoped that 
cultivators of silkworms will be convinced, after reading ihis Manual, of the greater 
advantages attending the mode pur.''uc«l and recommended by Cotint I)and«lo. 



I 175 ] 5S 

proportioned to the size of the cloths. The alx minutes elapsed, tlie 
cloths must be taken out, and the water allowed to drip from them^ 
by holding them up for two or three minutes. They should then be 
spread upon the tables. The cloth should be kept well stretched, 
while the eggs are separated from the cloth with a scraper. The 
scraper should not be too sharp, for fear of cutting the eggs; neither 
too blunt, lest it should crush them. The eggs do not stick fast on 
wet linen. 

When a good quantity of the eggs has been scraped off, they should 
be put into a basin; and this is repeated till all the eggs are scraped 
off, and put into the same basin. Water should then be poured upon 
the eggs, and they should be lightly washed, to separate them from 
one another. The water will be very dirty, as the eggs are always 
more or less soiled with the matter deposited by the moth. On the 
surface of the water will be seen floating the shells of a few eggs that 
have already cast their worms; also, many yellow eggs, which are 
not impregnated; and others, which, without being of that color, are 
very light. All these- that float should be skimmed off directly. If 
the eggs are collected in an unfiivorable season, particularly during 
cold weather, many yellow eggs, and even reddish ones, wiH sink to 
the bottom, although they are not impregnated. The water having 
been well stirred, it should be poured into a sieve, or upon some cloths, 
to drain off the eggs. 

Should the rooms have brick floors, the cloth may be spread on the 
bricks and changed every five hours. Bricks dry the eggs by absorbing' 
the moisture more quickly than any other substance. If the flooring 
is not of brick, hurdles of wicker work would be necessary, or basket 
work tables. In the course of two days, the eggs will generally be 
dry; they should then be put into plates, in layers of half the breadth 
of the finger, and left until it is needful to hatch them, being careful 
fx) preserve them from rats. It is essential to place them in a cool dry 
spot, in about from 46° to 59° Fahrenheit.* 

II. The necessity of determining, by the thermometer, the suitable 
degree of heat for hatching and rearing the silkworm. 

To produce, maintain, and regulate the degree of heat necessary in 
the space allotted to the hatching and progress of the silkworm, we 
must imitate the botanist in the management of the hot-house, and 
employ the thennometer. By this valuable instrument, we clearly 
see that it is of less importance that the silkworm should live in a tem- 
perature equal to the heat of its native climes, than that it should be 
preserved from, violent transitions, and in a uniform temperature in its 
different ages. The thermometer, which cannot be affected by the ca- 
price and will of man, is a certain method of attaining this important 
object of even temperature. For a large establlsliment, we shall re- 

* It has been thought proper to relaln tlie directions of Dandolo respecting the 
treatment of the eggs, preparatory to exposing them to heat, in order to hatch fhem, 
that comparati\e experiments may be made by them, and by the simple exposure of 
the t'ggs, while attached tp clotlis or paps-r, to the natural heat of the atmosphere. 
or that of a stove. 



59 [ 175 ] 

^uire several well-constructed thermometers. Tliose made with quick- 
silver are always the most desirable, because the expansion and con- 
densation of that metal are more exact than those of spirits of wine. 
The exterior sensations, and the disposition of the body, arc often in 
opposition to the evidence of the thermometer. These instruments 
are therefore indispensable. The American cultivator of silkworms 
must not be alarmed at being told, that a thermometer is an indispen- 
sable instrument to his success: for ample experience has proved, 
that it is impossible to ensure it without one; and no one should at- 
tempt the business upon a large scale, and expect all the profit which 
will result from his labors and capital expencjed, unless the heat of 
the rooms is thus regulated. We all knovv^ the extreme atmospheric 
variations which often take place in the course of twenty-four hours, 
and these are highly injurious to silkworms. The whole, or the 
greater part, of a crop of worms, may be destroyed by a cold night; 
or, if not destroyed, their growth will be checked, the spinning of 
their cocoons be delayed, or rendered irregular and tedious; and they 
will also be of a less size than when the heat of the room has been re- 
gularly preserved. Thus, whether amusement or profit be the object, 
a thermometer is essential. The instrument, as will be hereafter seen, 
is also necessary to determine the proper degree of heat in the water 
in which the cocoons are to be put to wind off their silk. 

It will be asked, do the people of Connecticut use therm.ometcrs? If 
not, do they not succeed without them? It is believed that they are 
not employed; and the consequences are, that millions of worms must 
die from the causes mentioned; that the profit is thus greatly dimin- 
ished; and that many worms which do survive, become debilitated, 
spin small cocoons, and produce diminutive moths, and bad eggs. 
Hence the race is liable to degenerate. The people of Connecticut are 
not aware of the importance of a thermometer, or they would not be 
without one; and it only requires a single person among them to use 
one, and thus to demonstrate his greater success, to induce the practice 
to become general. The expense of a thermometer is trifling, and be- 
sides its utility in the business of rearing silkworms, it will be found 
a source of amusement to the owner and his family, throughout the 
year, by enabling them to ascertain the precise temperature of the sea- 
sons, and to judge of the comparative degrees of it in different years. 

III. Of the hot-house, or room in which the silkworm should be 
hatched. 

The first use of the thermometer should be in the liot-housc, wliich 
is destined for the hatching of the eggs. 

As it may be more favorable to our interests that the silkworm 
should be developed whenever we find it cjonvcnicnt, and as this in- 
sect must be reared in a season which, in our climates, h:is not llie re- 
quisite warmth, it is therefore indispensable to create an artificial tem- 
perature suited to its progress. A. small room or spnco should bo pre- 
ferred to a large one, as it is thus more easy to regulate the heat, and 
■as it abo saves fuel. Silkworm^' have been h^dclied in a .small apirt-* 



f 175 j 60 

ment about twelve feet square, and capable of comrnodiously hatching 
not only ten, twenty, or thirty ounces of eggs, but even two hundred, 
if required. The small apartment must be particularly dry, and should 
contain all the necessary implements that may be wanted. The fol- 
lowing details may be thought too minute, but this should not deter 
from giving every explanation deemed requisite in so important an art. 

This small apartment should contain, 

] St. A stove of moderate size, not made of iron, because the heat 
could not be regulated so accurately, but of thin bricks. It must stand 
out in the room. It ig calculated to raise by degrees, slowly, and at 
will, with little wood, the temperature of the room.* 

2d. Several boxes or trays, either made of thick pasteboard, if they 
are not large, but if large, of thin boards.! The size of these boxes 
tjhould vary according to the quantity of eggs which are to be hatched. 
Foi" an ounce of eggs, the space of about ei^^.ht inches square is required. 
This may give an idea of the size and number of boxes that may be 
wanted, and we shall see hereafter how useful it is not to depart from 
this rule. The depth of the wooden trays or boxes, must, of course, 
be in proportion to their size. The boxes should all be distinctly num- 
bered. 

3d. Some wicker trays or tables. 

These wicker trays should be placed horizontally against the wall, 
supported upon two pieces of wood fastened into the wall. When there 
are many of these wicker trays to be disposed of, they should be put 
one above another, with an interval of about twenty-two inches be- 
tween them. These trays are for the purpose of holding the boxes in 
which the eggs are to be hatched. The boxes must be so disposed as 
to allow of easy inspection, that they may be examined as often as 
jiecessary. Care should be taken that the wicker trays be not too close, 

4th. A flat spoon for stirring the eggs well. 

5th. Several thermometers. They may be hung in various parts of 
the stove-room ; or, still better, if laid by the side of the boxes, indicating 
the precise temperature of every part of the stove-room. For, it must 
be observed, the temperature varies in difierent parts of the room, par- 
ticularly between the part next the stove and that nearest the door. 
This observation may be of use, as it may enable the cultivator either 
to force or retard the silkworms by some days; thus to hatch them as 
the mulberry leaf becomes fit for their food, which, in some positions 
and soils, is earlier than in others. 

6th. A few light portable trays, for moving the small boxes which 
contain the young worms, or for moving them when they are more ad- 
vanced. They should be made of thin board, about one foot in breadth, 
and long enough to fit across the width of the feeding frames or hur- 
dles: the handle should be fixed in the centre, so as to allow of their 

* The porcelain stoves imported from France, for about $10, or the tile stoves 
made at Betldehem, Pennsylvania, would answer well. Turf, tanners* waste bai'k;, 
orcharcoal, are the materials for fuel. 

i Shallow bandb3::cs are very convenient for a sioall quantity of eg'gs. 




61 [ 175 ] 

l>eing carried firmly with one hand. They must be smoothly finished, 
that the silkworms may mount upon them without difficulty. The 
ledges around three sides ought to 
be about an half inch deep. The an- 
nexed cut will give a correct idea of 
their form. 

7th. An air-hole or ventilator in the floor of the room with a sliding 
panel to open and close it, but which, in general, must be closed; it 
may be used to temper the heat, should it have exceeded the degree^ 
which will be pointed out as necessary for bringing forth the silk- 
worms. We have thus the means of making a gentle current of air be- 
tween this air-hole and the door, to correct the excess of heat indicated 
by the thermometer. 

8. A glazed window to light the stove-room. It is a vulgar error 
to imagine that light is not as necessary to the animation of the silk- 
worm, as to that of every other living thing. The light does not in- 
commode the silkworm, until it has reached its perfect state of moth, 
as we shall hereafter mention. 

These are all that are required to furnish a store-room. This room 
may be used for rearing the silkworms, as well as for hatching tiiem; 
and being heated with little expense, might hatch silkworms for any 
number of persons. 

IV. Of the hatching of the silkworm. 

When the cultivator has observed the state of the vegetation in the 
mulberry leaf, and imagined it fitting to have his silkworms hatched 
in ten days, he w^ill put the eggs in the boxes in the proper quantities. 
-He must weigh them, and keep a register; in which he must note his 
observations upon the course and progress of the insects, and thus at 
once secure theory and practice; beginning by marking the day and 
hour upon which he sets the box in the stove-room, and also the num- 
ber of the box; and, in short, every thing that may be worthy of no- 
tice. The wicker hurdles should have paper laid inside of them, and 
tjie distance before prescribed to be left between the boxes, is to pre- 
vent the silkworm from going from one to the other. If the temper- 
ature of the stove-room should not reach 64°, on the day fixed upon 
to put in the eggs, it is necessary to light a little fire, that it may rise 
to that degree, which ought to be continued during two days. If the 
thermometer indicate that the exterior air is above 64°, the shatters 
should be closed, and the door and the ventilator opened, to create a 
draught and cool the stove-room. The third day, the temperature 
should be raised to 66°, the fourth day to 68°, the fifth day to 71°, the 
sixth day to 73°, the seventh day to 75°, the eighth day to 77°, the 
ninth day to 80°, the tenth, eleventh, and tweliih days to 81°."^ 

* The propriety of attending- to the g-radiial hicrease of heat in hatching- the eg-gs, 
is so reasonable, and so conformable to all experience, that it cannot be too strongly 
insisted on. Great heat, suddenly applied and continued, never fails to push on thit 
worms too fast, and to render them red when they first come out. The nearer the 
American cultivator is able to keep to the degrees of the thermometer which Dan- 
dolo has pointed out, the more f criaia will b? his success. 



[ 175 ] (x!Z 

The following are the signs of the speedy vivifi'cation of the silk- 
worm : 

The ash-gray color of the eggs grows bluish, then purplish; it then 
again grows gray, with a cast of yellow; and finally, of a dingy white. 

If the eggs of silkworms belonging to different persons, are put into 
the same stove-room, great differences will be observable, not only in 
changes of color in the eggs, but also as to the period of hatching the 
worms. The insects of the eggs that have been preserved through 
the winter in an even and gentle temperature, and those of the eggs 
which have undergone maceration,'"^ come forth in four or five days 
sooner, namely, at the 71st, 73d, or 75th, degree of temperature; 
whilst those that have been kept in a very cold atmosphere, appear 
some days later. 

This stove imparts to each egg the degree of heat necessary tg 
change the embryo it contahis into jthe worm. When the eggs have 
been kept in a certain degree of warmth, it requires less stove-heat 
to develope the silkworm. This is so true, and so worthy of notice, 
that we find, if, in the winter, the eggs have been kept in an atmo- 
sphere of 55^or59°, or heaped together, they spontaneously come forth, 
or without the aid of the stove, when the room is but slightly warmed, 
and before the mulberry tree has given any sign of vegetation. In 
this case, these worms must be thrown away, unless other food is at 
hand upon which they can be sustained for a time. This circum- 
stance is, ther^ore, of essential consequence, and should be noted to 
prevent its occurrence. A little delay in the hatching of the worms 
is no loss; whereas it may be a very serious loss, if we anticipate, by 
a few" days, the proper period of hatching. To backen them, when 
very near the time of coming forth, by altering the temperature, in- 
jures them materially. To prevent the loss of worms thus permitted 
to hatch too early, they may be fed on lettuce, upon which it is well 
ascertained that they can be well sustained in their early stage. The 
experiments of General Mordaunt, in England, were referred to long 
since, t Miss Rhodes fed them, upon two occasions, successfully, 
with this food. She gave it to the first parcel for the first week, and 
then substituted mulberry leaves. Upon a second occasion, the worms 
came out on the first of June, and were kept on lettuce until the 24th 
of the month. Mulberry leaves were then given; in less than a week 
after the change of food, they began to spin, and the cocoons were. as 
fine and as firm as any she ever had. She did not lose a dozen worms 
of many thousands.^ Her experience has recently been confirmed by 

* By maceration is commonly understood egg's preserved in bag-s, under cushions 
ormattresses, or in blankets, and similar tiling's, until the moment of putting them in 
the stove-house. 

This uncertain method must be injurious to the regular and secure developemcirt 
of the worms. It often happens that great quantities are spoiled by maceration, the 
worms coming forth, and shortly dying. 

It appears rational that, when there is a certain and regular method, we should 
not adopt another, the result of which is uncertain and irregular, paj'ticularly when 
^his secure method is not attended by any g-reat expense. 

-|- Bee, by Dr. Anderson. Edinburgh, vol. 8. p. 262. 

4: Trans. Soc Arts, Load. vol. 4, p. 149. 



€3 [ 175 j 

th&t of Miss Pether, who fed silkworms on cabbage lettuce, until the 
last change of their skins, when she substituted mulberry leaves until 
they began to spin their cocoons. The silk produced under this treat- 
ment was pronounced by a silk manufacturer, and three dealers in 
silk, to be equal to the average quality of the silk of the continent, 
and much superior to that of the East Indies. With an improved 
mode of reeling, it would have been equal to the better sorts of 
Italian silk. * Other food has also been employed with success. In 
the valuable paper on the silk culture, before referred to, in the second 
volume of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society ^t 
it is stated that, in Italy, rose leaves are used; but the late vegetation 
of that plant may prevent its general use. Mr. Loudont mentions, 
that M. Bonafous, an experienced cultivator of silkworms, found that 
•^ dandelion sustained them until the fourth change, when the leaves 
of the mulberry were substituted." If this plant should answer in 
the United States, the fact is important, as it is the first vegetable that 
appears in the spring. § Various works, during the last thirty years, 
have repeated the following statement, viz: that Dr. Bellardi, of 
Turin, after a number of experiments, found that young worms eat 
dried mulberry lea.ves with avidity. The leaves must be collected 
about the end of autumn, before frost, and in dry weather, and at a 
time when the heat is greatest; then dried in the sun, and laid up in a 
dry place, after they have been reduced to powder. When given to 
the worms, this powder should be slightly moistened with water, and 
a parcel of it placed before the worms. This practice, according to 
Du Halde,|| is pui^ued in China, with this difference, that the leaves 
are merely kept in earthen jars. IF 

When the egg assumes a whitish color, the worm is already formed, 
and, with a glass, may be seen within the shell. The eggs should then 
be covered with white paper, well pierced with a particular instru- 
ment;** the paper so cut as to cover them all. The worms will appear 
upon this paper, climbing through the holes. A clear muslin will 
do as well as paper. To collect the worms, small twigs of mulberry^ 
with only two or three leaves on them, should be laid on the paper, 
and they should be increased as fast as tlie worms come out upon them; 

* Trans. Soc. Arts, Lond. vol. 44, p. 71. IMiss P. received a premium from the 
Society forlier silk. Mr. Swaync says that his worms, the eggs of wliicli came from 
Turin, obstinately refused to touch lettuce leaves, Trans. Soc. Arts, rol. 10, p, 
187. 

t p. 352. 

i Gardener's Mag. vol. 2, p. 346. Lond. July, 1827. 

§ Both lettuce and dandelion were long since mentioned, as food upon which young 
v^orms could be sustained. Essay upon the Silkworm, by Henry Baiham. London- 
1719, preface. 

H History of China, vol. 2, p. 367. London, 1741. 

^ The writer wishes it to be distinctly understood, that the above substitutes for 
the proper food of silkworms ought only to be used when this cannot be had. Diie 
attention, except in a very late spring, will always enable us to accommodate the 
iiatching of the worms to the vegetation of tlic mulberry tree. 

** A pricker, similar to that of a biscuit baker's docker, will a^swPT perfectly 
"Hie ifse of the pi(»rcod paper must never be omitted. 



[ 175 ] 64 

Ibr, if they do not find the leaves, they get out of the boxes. Fe\V 
worms appear the first day; and if the number of theixi is very in- 
considerable, they should be thrown away, because, when mixed with 
the later worms, they would grow faster, and become mature so much 
sooner that they would only be troublesome. 

The worms which may have been managed according to the method 
just stated, will always be healthy and strong. They will never be 
red nor black, but of a dark hazel color, or chestnut, which is the pro- 
per color they should have. When the worms are red at their first 
coming out, it is a sign the eggs have either been bad, or ill kept over 
winter, or overheated: that is, too much forced, when laid to hatch. 
Worms of this color are good for nothing, and should be thrown away, 
since they will not produce cocoons. ''^ 

To prevent the young leaves from drying, which they will do rapid- 
ly, they must be put loose in clean stone jars, if convenient, covered, 
and placed in a vault or cellar. A stock of leaves, at least for three 
days, should always be in the house, to secure food in the event of 
wet Aveather. 

The essential point is to cause the eggs to be hatched with the 
greatest ease. If the success of this operation be not complete, the 
worms will probably be subject to disease through their whole course 
of life, as will be shown. 

The appearance of the new hatched worms is that of a woolly sub- 
stance, of a dark chestnut hue, in which is perceptible a general stir- 
ting of minute animals, rearing up, and presenting a black and shining 
speck or head. While the eggs are in the stove-room, they should 
be stirred around with the spoon two or three times a day. This opera- 
tion hastens their coming forth. When the temperature of the stove- 
room is raised to 75°, it is advantageous to have two dishes, in which 
Water may be poured, so as to oifer a surface of nearly four inches 
diameter. In four days there will have taken place an evaporation 
of nearly twelve ounces of water; the moisture, which rises very 
slowly, moderates the dryness which might occur in the stove-room. 
Very dry air is not favorable to the developement of silkworms .t 

A prudent cultivator has done all in his power, when, on observing 
the season favorable, and the bud of the mulberry shoots in a proper 
degree of forwardness, he has put the eggs into the stove-room. Should 
the weather suddenly change, as it did in Italy in the year 1814, it 
is then of great use to have the power of backening the hatching of 
the eggs, without injuring the worms, and to prolong their two first 
stages by a few days. To obtain this, the only method is, after the 
worms have been removed into the laboratory about five hours, to 
lower the temperature to 73° from 75°; four hours after, further to 
lower it to 71°, and the following day to 68°, if necessary. 

* Step]ienson: Trans. Soc. Arts. London, vol. 43. 

f In tills place it in:i}^ be proper to caution the cultivator against exposing the 
worms to t!ie sin ell of tobacco, which is a cause of cei-tain deatli to them. A number 
was recently put in a box which liad contained segars, and many of tliem died, although 
the box was lined with clean paper. No smoking should be pennitted in the room in 
which silkworms are. 



65 [ 175 j 

This cooling of the air diminishes the hunger of the young silk- 
worm by degrees, and without danger; and, by these means, the 
modifications are prevented, which, at 75% would have brouo-ht on 
the casting or moulting much more speedily. At 75°, the first moult- 
ing is effected the fifth day; whilst at 71° it requires six or seven 
days. The second moulting, which, at 75°, is wrought in four daySj 
at 69° and 71° takes six days for its accomplishment. Thus, by fore- 
sight and prudence, the proprietor will be enabled to gain seven or 
eight days, which prevents any ill effect from the unfavorableness 
of the season; and this time gained, it is evident, may be of the 
utmost consequence. In 1813, the silkworms were reared in thirty- 
one days, and it required thirty-eight days to raise them in 1814, to 
allow time for the growth of the mulberry leaf; and there are not 
comprised, in these seven days gained, the three days of delay in the 
hatching of the silkworms, having perceived that the whole season 
was bad. Those who are not careful thus to meet the accidental 
untowardness of seasons, and by art to prevent their injuries, would 
be obliged either to throw away the early hatched eggs, or to strip the 
mulberry tree too soon, and injure the leaves w^hich are to feed the 
silkworm in its adult stages hereafter. These considerations must 
strongly impress the necessity of delaying the hatching of the eggs 
by some days, rather than hurry their coming forth, particularly as 
there is no fear, when worms are reared in this secure manner, of 
their being injured. Should there occur two or three hot days, these 
would only accelerate the moulting a fev/ days sooner. It is also 
certain, that the later silkworms, in their last stage of progress, 
make choice of the leaves suitable to their age, and particularly those 
leaves which are quite ripened, which, for the proprietor's interest, is 
the most important period, as it is. at that last period the greatest con- 
sumption of the leaves occurs. 

It is easy to imagine that it may often require more than three days, 
even to bring forth the silkworms, from a given quantity of eggs. It 
will be seen hereafter, that the moths do not issue from the cocoons in 
less than ten days or a fortnight, according to the temperature to which 
they have been exposed; and it is therefore evident, there may be a 
difference of ten days or a fortnight in the laying the eggs. As the 
teggs put to hatch are not, therefore, all laid the same day, and are lia- 
ble to the same degree of heat in the stove-room, some must come out 
sooner than others;* hence, no one can say the late hatched eggs can be 
either better or worse than the early eggs, because the embryo has re- 
quired long6r to perfect itself into the worm: this period is always pro- 

* It does not appear correct to say that, because the eggs are not all laid in one day, 
they cannot be hatched in one day. If we may arg'uc by analog-y, it is well known that 
hens hatch eg-gs laid at various periods in a short time. Housewives well know, when 
they choose egg's for setting, that, provided they be good eggs, their having been laid 
at different times is of no consequence. It would appear thiit it is not because the eggs 
of the silkworms have been laid sooner or later, that they do not hatch at one time; 
but, more probably, this difference proceeds from the peculiar quality of the c^^, and of 
the care taken to surround it constantly with the degj'ce of hrat it may individually re- 
quire. 





t 1'5^5 3 ^6 

portioned to the constitution of the eggs. These reflections should satisfy 
those who have one box of eggs, and one single room to rear the worms 
in, how much it imports that he should not reckon on the very late 
hatched eggs, that he may not have worms of a day old mixed with 
worms four days old, thus interfering with the general progress of cul- 
tivation. The proprietor, on the contrary, who has many boxes of eggs 
to bring forth, can dispose of the early or late eggs to other persons^ 
and, by these means, need never mix the silkworms of different ages. 
Then, if one person holds those of the first day^s hatching, and another 
holds the worms hatched the fourth day, no civil accrues; all proceeds 
with regularity and ease, as each person has equal-aged silkworms to 
attend to. 

When the proprietor has only a small box of eggs to hatch, it is bet* 
ter to cast away those that come forth the first day, and not to reckon 
on those that are not come forth the third day; and thus, by having only' 
those hatched in the tw^o intermediate days to attend to, much trouble 
will be saved. It is far better to lose a few worms of the first day's 
hatching, and eggs not hatched the third day, than to suffer the incon- 
venience, during the whole progress of rearing them: by adding a small 
quantity of eggs to those that are next to be hatched, the loss is easily 
made up. These directions are recommended to be exactly followed 
up ; they will guide, simplify, and ameliorate the cultivation of silk- 
worms. If they are not attended to, the exact proportion of eggs which 
produces the worms will not be known, and there will be constantly 
on the tables worms of different sizes, with differing necessities, and 
failure and trouble will ensue. 

It is thought proper, in this place, to give the practice of a gentle- 
man of Montauban, in France, who, according to Air. Stephenson, had 
uncommon success in rearing silkworms. 

Having long observed that the w^orms which were first hatched, 
turned out always to be more healthy and vigorous than those which 
were later in coming out, he made it a point to save no more than the 
J)roduction of the three first days, throwing away all the rest. He 
likewise made it a rule, upon their passing tiirough their different 
moultings, to take only the forward worms, throwing away regularly 
all those which remain long in recovering from them: having, for 
many years, observed that those worms which are hatched after the 
third day, always ^urn out weakly, and are tedious in all their opera- 
tions. For the same reason, he rejected all those worms which linger 
in getting over their moultings, which he ascribed to their weakness, 
or to their being infected, in some measure, with some disease, which 
generally carried them off before they could make their cocoons; or, 
if they did reach the length to make them, these were so light that 
they were not equal to the expense of the leaves. When worms were 
recovering from their moultings, he saved only such as carne away 
the first two days, and threw away all that were not ready at the close 
of the second day. 



67 [ 175 ] 

It must be obvious, that this system is calculated to ensure a sound, 
vigorous, and annually improving breed.* 

When the worms are laid upon the papers, they should be given 
some young leaves, covering the spaces between the twigs with them, 
that, by degrees, the whole surface may be equally spread with silk- 
worms. In case they should get into heaps, a leaf might be put over 
them, to which they will adhere; and, being gently lifted, it may be 
put in any spot where the worms lie thinner. 

Whenever silkworms are added upon the paper where some worms 
have already been deposited, they should have food given them ; but 
the worms that were first on the paper should not be again fed until 
the other sheets of paper have been filled. Thus a fair number of the 
first worms will receive the second meal at one time. 

The worms take at least two days to come forth ; consequently, the 
first hatched will be larger than those that appear the second and third 
days. We have stated above, that the thermometer proves, that a room 
can never be heated to a degree exactly equal in every point of space. 
There will exist the difference of a degree, and even more. By put- 
ting the early worms in the coolest part of the room, and the late 
hatched worms in the hottest, and by feeding the latter rather higher, 
it is practicable to bring them nearly to an equality. 

It has been said, that, if the worms which appear the first day are 
in very small quantity, as it mostly happens, it is of no consequence, 
because the main portion comes forth the second and third days. How- 
ever, if it is required that those first hatched should be reared, they 
ought to be put in an angle of the sheet of paper belonging to the num- 
ber of their box, and only be allowed half the quantity of food which 
is given to those later worms, on the first and second day. 

In general, the silkworms come forth more abundantly in the fore- 
noon, when the sun shines warmly into the room; the room being then 
hotter than at night. The great alterations to which the eggs are ex- 
posed, occur in the night: if those who have the care of the silkworms 
at night, heap up the fire, that they may take their rest without having 
to make it up, the augmentation of heat afiects, and even spoils the 
embryo. 

It has been observed, that, some days, the hatching of the worms 
was most abundant in some boxes, and equally so in all the hours of the 
day as in the morning. 

Where worms are fed on shares, an easy and beneficial improvement 
would be, that all the eggs be hatched in boxescapable of holding twen- 
ty or thirty ounces, constructed in the proportions before-mentioned, 
and that as fast as the worms come forth, the sheets of paper should be 

* Notwithstandhig- Dandolo is our chief pilot in the rearing- of silkworms, it is deemed 
important to direct the attention of Jthe readerto tlic didVrcnt jiractice of the experi- 
enced cultivator rcfen-edto above. If the direction of Dandolo, to tlu'ow away the worms 
of the first and fourth days' hatching-, be not adopted, wc should never omit to keep 
the productions of those'days separate from the othei-s hatched on the two first d;<}S, 
in order that each parcel may be brought forward as equal as possible, and thatal| the 
worms contained in it, may be in readiness to form cocoons on the same day, or iVitliip 
two days of one anotUej. 



[ 173 ] t>8 

arranged to receive the ounce of silkworms in regular order, as has alsd 
been before explained. By this method, each person would receive 
worms hatched nearly the same hour, perfectly equal. When all the silk- 
worms are hatched, they should be divided into ounces, as nearly as pos- 
sible, and put upon the sheets of paper. The earliest should be 
given to those cultivators whose mulberry trees are most advanced. 
Should the hatching continue three days upon this plan, it would make 
no difficulty, as different persons would take the worms of various ages, 
and thus each would have the silkworms of one period. It is a great 
error to imagine that it can be advantageous to give a person silkworms 
of various days hatching, to make up the quantity he is to receive and 
rear; because those of the first day's production are stronger than those 
of the second day, or of the third and fourth days. We repeat it, the 
essential point is to have the worms as nearly equal as we can bring 
them. 



CHAPTER VII. 

OF THE SMALL APARTMENT TO WHICH THE NEW HATCHED WORMS 
SHOULD BE REMOVED, AND OF THEIR REMOVAL. 

W^e shall, in this chapter, treat qf the following subjects: 

I. Of the apartment destined to receive the new hatched silkworms. 

II. Of moving the silkworms directly after they are hatched. 

I. Of the Laboratory destined to receive the silkworms newly hatched. 

This small habitation is to contain the silkworm until its third cast- 
ing of skin, or moulting."^ The room should be in exact proportion to 
the number of silkworms, and calculated for facilitating the attendance 
upon them. Thus proportioned, it will be economical, as there will 
not be that quantity of fuel used, which it would take to warm either 
one very large room or several small ones. 

The worms proceeding from an ounce of eggs^ require, until the first 
moulting of the skin, a space of about seven feet ten inches square. 

Until the second moulting, a space of about fifteen feet four inche« 
square. 

Until the third moulting, a space of thirty-five feet square. 

* In explaining the use of tlie small laboratory, it will be shown how much n^ore eco- 
nomicul it is, than apartments either too larg-e or too small. However, others must be 
guided by their own convenience, in making use of those rooms they find suitable. And, 
shoidd there be but one apartment for the rearing of the silkwoiTns until tlie cocoon be 
formed, it would be of small consequence, provided attention were given to maintain, 
^vith exactness, the temperature, in all its degrees, which will be indicated. One room 
sufiices, particularly for those who liatcli but a small q\iantity of silkworms, if they have 
wicker tables enough to admit of sufficient space between the worms. These should 
be t\volumdred and ten feet square, for disposing of the silkwomis proceeding from 
one ounce weiglit. 



69 [ 175 ] 

The hurdles or wicker trays should be placed above one anollier, at 
a distance of twenty-two inches at least; and as many should be put, as 
are required to give the space necessary for the quantity of silkworms 
which are to be accommodated. 

The worms must be kept upon paper, which should line the wicker 
trays, and extend a little beyond, to prevent the worms falling ofi\*' 
Upon this paper, which should be strong, ought to be inscribed the cor- 
responding numbers to those on the boxes; thus avoiding every chance 
of the silkworms of different boxes being mixed. 

According to the sizeof the room, there should be one or more ther- 
mometers, one or two small fire-places in the angles, one or two ventila- 
tors in the ceiling, or in the floor, and one or more windows; and also 
as many doors as may be convenient. In this room it might be proper 
to place a stove, similar to that in the stove-room^ as in cold weather it 
may be used to save fuel. 

The principal advantage of the small fire-places, is, not so much the 
warming the air, as the making a draught or current through it. as wq 
shall show hereafter. The temperature of this laboratory should be 
carried to 15P: about two degrees lower than the stove room heat 
which hatched the eggs. Experience teaches us that, as the silk- 
worm grows older, and gets stronger, it requires less heat. 

Such is the temperature that suits these insects shortly after they 
are hatched. Should the season be peculiarly unfavorable, and the 
vegetation of the mulberry tree checked, it might be necessar}'- to 
slacken the temperature, and thus gain a few days by gradually lower- 
ing the heat to seventy-one degrees, and even to sixty-eight degreesj 
fcut not beyond that. 

II. Of the removal of the new-hatched silkworm into the labora- 
tory, or elsewhere. 

The silkworm should be removed, as soon as possible, into the 
apartment in which they are to remain until their third moulting, un- 
less it is intended they should be reared in the stove-room.' If a dif- 
ferent room is proposed for the rearing of these insects, until their third 
moulting, it is because it is found both more convenient and more ad^ 
vantageous. 

When they are about to be removed from the stove-room, three cir- 
cumstances must be noticed, relative to the manner of transporting 
them. 

In the first place, whether the silkworms are to be reared in tlie 
same house in which they have been hatched. 

Secondly, if part of them are to be reared in the house, and the rest 
removed. 

And lastly, if all are to be removed. 

1. Let us suppose all the worms are to be reared in the same place. 

• The edg-es should also be turned up about an inch and a half. 



£ 175 3 70 

When the little twigs spread over the perforated paper which ce* 
vered the eggs of the silkworms in the small boxes, are loaded with 
the young worms, these boxes are all put upon trays made to carry 
them, and they are removed to the laboratory. 

When all the sheets of coarse paper, accurately numbered, have 
been laid on the wicker hurdles, the small box of the corresponding 
number, is put on the edge of the wicker hurdle, and with a small 
hook, the twigs, covered with the worms, are gently lifted off the per- 
forated paper on the box, and put upon the paper laid on the wicker 
hurdles. A hook should be used, as the touch of the hands might in- 
jure the insects. * In laying the twigs on the paper, care must be had 
to allow space enough for mulberry leaves to be put over the twigs 
and between them, that the insects may have room to stretch and pro- 
perly distribute themselves. It should be noted here, that the silk- 
worms produced from one ounce of eggs thus disposed, should occupy 
a space of twenty square inches. Each sheet of coarse paper, on the 
hurdle, will cover a space of nearly twenty-two square inches: being 
twenty-three inches long, and twenty-one inches wide. Having a 
care to lay the worms in squares of ten inches, four sheets of paper will 
be the number required to hold the produce of one ounce of eggs, 
which will exactly allow the w^rms the space they need, until after 
their first moulting. The sheets of paper will be four times the size of 
the small boxes, and those four sheets of paper must bear the same 
number as the box; and thus the worms will not want moving till their 
first moulting has passed. 

As fast as the silkworms come forth, they should be moved in this 
manner. 

2, We are to suppose that a portion of the silkworms is to be reared 
in the house in which they have been hatched, and the rest to be 
reared elsewhere. 

When the cultivator shall have taken home with him his proportion 
of the silkworms upon these sheets of paper containing one ounce^ he 
must put the square of silkworms into four small squares of ten inches 
each, thus forming four quarters of one sheet, or rather four small 
sheets. This division is easily effected, by passing the hands under 
the litter of leaves to which the worms cling, and parting the leaves 
gently, when it is required to divide the mass; it separates easily, 
and may be subdivided at pleasure. The parts should be as even 
as possible. If, in the first ages, all the care described is not taken, 
numbers will be lost; they will be unequal, and contract numberless 
diseases. 

3. We are to suppose all the silkworms are to be removed from the 
house in w^hich they were hatched. 

In a box calculated for removing easily, and proportioned to the 
size of the sheets of paper, should be put several of these sheets, 
jcovered with silkworms in layers above each other, at the distance of 



* The hook should be bltmt, to prevent injury to the worms. See plate 1, fig*. T, 



tl ( 175 3 

a^early two inches; or common baskets may be used. The removal 
in baskets may be executed in safety, with the following precautions: 

1. Lining the baskets thoroughly with paper well closed, that the 
exterior air may not strike the silkworms, particularly if it should be 
cold. 

2. Preventing the sheets of paper covered with worms, from touch- 
ing each other, by putting slender sticks across to support the sheets 
of paper, and avoiding their pressing togetlier. This should be done 
in as many layers, from the bottom of the basket to the top, as there 
are sheets of paper covered with the young worms, leaving a distance 
of four fingers between each. 

3. To cover the basket very completely with linen cloths, to keep 
off cold and sun. 

4. To remove them between the hours of twelve and three o'clock, 
that being the hottest part of the day. 

5 To give the worms a small quantity of young and chopped leaves 
if their journey is likely to be three or four hours long. 

The proportion of the boxes stated as necessary for hatching tha 
silkworms, should not be altered; as this proportion prevents any 
necessit}^ of ever touching the eggs, from the moment the silkworms 
begin to appear. 

The perforated paper being large enough to support a number of 
small twigs of mulberry, it consequently enables us to remove a large 
portion of the silkworms at once. In using these small boxes, the 
egg shells will always adhere together, and when the boxes are lifted, 
they should be slightly shaken horizontally, to move the' eggs. If, in 
moving them, some of the holes in the paper should be stopped up 
with the eggs, it is of no consequence, as it will not prevent the worms 
climbing up. 

Whenever a sheet of paper is prepared for the arrangement of silk- 
worms, there should be inscribed upon the paper itself, the hour in 
which the arrangement began; thus it will be seen in what time, and 
in what progression, the silkworms come forth. A pencil may be 
lised, for the purpose of noting the sheets of paper. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



©F THE REARING OP SILKWORMS IN THEIR FOUR FIRST STAGES. 

In the preceding chapter it has been stated, that the space suitable 
to the number of silkworms proceeding from one ounce of eggs, 
should be, in the first age, that is to say, until the first moulting, 7 
feet 4 inches square. Of about 14 feet 8 inches, until the second 
Tnoulting; and of 84 feet 10 inches, until the third moulting. The 
space required until the fourth moulting, is 82 feet six indies square. 



i 175 3 '^S 

Those who have the means of extending these allotted spaces, ma} do 
so by some feet; because it is certain, that the more room silkworms 
are allowed, the better they eat, digest, breathe, perspire, and rest. 
The spaces mentioned are sufficient, and present the advantage of fa- 
cilitating the attendance on the silkworms, and economizing their 
food. 

It may not be without advantage, exactly to know, what quantity 
of the mulberry leaf the silkworm consumes in its four first ages. 

For the quantity of food fixed, the following circumstances must be 
supposed to exist: 

That the silkworms are kept until the first casting or moulting, at 
75° of temperature; between 73° and 75° until the second moulting; 
between 71° and 73° until the third; and, lastly, between 68° and 71° 
till the fourth moulting. 

One of the foundations of the art of rearing the silkworm, is to 
know and determine the various degrees of heat in which, accordipg 
to their ages, the silkworms are to live. If this precept is not rigidly 
enforced, nothing can be performed with exactness. 

The writer of an article upon silkworms, inserted in Hosier's 
<* Cour (P Agriculture,'''' Paris, 1801, article Vers a Sole, thus ex- 
presses himself on this subject: *< A sudden change from moderate 
heat to violent heat, or, in general, from heat to cold, and cold to heat, 
is highly injurious to silkworms. In their native climate they are not 
exposed to these vicissitudes, .and therefore thrive well, without requi« 
ring all the care we are obliged to bestow on them. With us, on 
the contrary, the temperature of the atmosphere is so variable, that, 
without artificial means, we could not fix it in our laboratories for 
rearing silkworms. If it should happen to be necessary to hasten the 
worms, in consequence of the advanced state of the mulberry leaves, 
it should be done gradually, so that they do not perceive the alteration.'^ 

All the practical writers, expressly consulted on this subject, are 
agreed. It is, moreover, conformable to the well known principle of 
animal life, (which is always more or less aifected by sudden changes 
of temperature,) to hatch the worms by the gradual exposure of them 
to heat. The American cultivator must always, therefore, bear it in 
mind, if he expects to be fully paid for the trouble, time, and expense 
bestowed on silkworms. 

The English translator of Dandolo, has indeed inserted a note in 
this place, containing a passage from the Abbe Sauvage, by which it 
Would seem that young silkworms will bear, with impunity, a much 
greater heat than the highest degree to which Dandolo limits them, in 
their early age. Sauvage sa5'Sj that " he gave them 100° of heat dur- 
ing the two first days after hatching, and about 95° during the remain- 
der of the first and second age, and yet had a most abundant crop.'' 
But the translator has omitted to say that Sauvage does not recommend 
the practice. On the contrary, this author expressly says, that " he 
leaves to his readers to follow as they please the two modes of rearing 
the worms pointed out by him;" one with a more gentle heat, and 
the other with an increased degree; and, in two places, (pages 22, 35,, 



.yB [175 ] 

^d memoir,) advises a mean between them. The experiment of Sau- 
vage was a single one. Dandolo writes after years of practice, upon 
a very large scale, and recomriiends the degrees of heat which always 
ensured him success. Other practical writers ae;ree v*^ith Dandolo. 
No one, it is presumed, will be at a loss to decide which of these au- 
thorities is most worthy of being followed. 

The silkv/orms proceeding from one ounce of eggs, consume — 

1st. In the first age, (that is to say, when all are hatched, removed, 
and, distributed upon the sheets of paper, which includes at least two 
days.) six pounds of leaves well sorted, and chopped very small. 

2d. In the second age, they consume 13 pounds of leaves, chopped 
rather more coarsely than the food in the first age. 

3d. In the 3d age, they consume 60 pounds, still less chopped. 

4th. In the fourth age, 180 pounds, still less chopped than in the 
third age. 

Some circumstances may modify the proportions above specified, 
but these variations are not important, supposing the cultivator to act 
with considerate intelligence, and to time well the hatching of his 
silkworms with the springing of the young leaves, and then their 
growth with the progress of the leaf through the other stages of ex- 
istence. 

The only case in which the quantity of leaves fixed, in these general 
rules, for the consumption of the worms, will be found unnecessarily 
excessive, will be, if the worms have been ill attended and fail sick, 
pine away, and that many die. The quantity of leaves necessary for 
silkworms was determi'ied, after having made the most exact experi- 
ments repeatedly ; taking for granted, that the silkworms are maintained 
in the degrees of temperature indicated, and with the view, as much as 
possible* to economize the leaves; because, when an exact sufficiency of 
food is given to the wornij it eats with greater relish, digests well, and 
is strong. A great object in the art of rearing silkworms, is, to con- 
trive to obtain the greatest possible quantity of fine cocoons, with the 
least quantity of leaves. 

In managing upon this principle, the more leaves there are, the great- 
er will be the proportion of cocoons^ and consequently the greater the 
profit. Over-feeding, however, must always be guarded against: it not 
only causes a waste of leaves, but is the origin of many inconveniences 
which assail the silkworm, as we shall show hereafter. The careis 
which the silkworm requires in its four first ages, are neitlier numerous 
nor puzzling; although it is in those ages, and particularly in the two 
first, that the strength of its constitution is formed, upon which th* 
ultimate success depends. 

The two first days after it has cast the skin, it eats sparingly, and 
then becomes voracious: this hunger soon diminishes, and even ceases, 
These phenomena occur in ever}'^ moulting. Thus, notwithstanding 
the strength of its constitution, if it is not treated with the greatest care» 
at those times when it requires care, it siifiers, sickens, and dies: on 
this^'account, it is thought it might be usefid to giv<^ in this and the fol- 
lowing chapter, a diary of the earn tw bt^ tak^ij of silkworms, that it 
10 



[ 175 ] 74 

may be known what is to be done for them day by day. A few genei*- 
al remarks, however, must be previously made, on the great difference 
in result, which real care produces.*^ 

The laboratories used, are of various sizes: that which will now be 
referred to, is calculated for the reception of the worms proceeding from 
five ounces of eggs. 

It must be allowed that the advantage of the mode of rearing silk- 
worms in question, might perhaps be trifling, if it were only in the 
product of the hundred and ten, or hundred and twenty pounds of co- 
coons from each ounce of eggs, which others obtain, consuming the 
same quantity of leaves, and differing only in the hatching of two 
ounces of eggs. But, as before remarked, the great and principal aim 
of the art of rearing silkworms, is to obtain from one given quantity of 
mulberry leaves, the greatest possible number of cocoons of the finest 
quality. It is not the trifling loss of an ounce of eggs which should 
induce a change of system of habits, but the following advantages: for 
it is a fact, that, 

1st. When, with one ounce of eggs one hundred and ten or one 
hundred and twenty pounds of cocoons are obtained, about one thou- 
sand six hundred and fifty pounds of the mulberry leaf will be used. 

2d. That when only fifty-five or sixty pounds of cocoons are produced 
from one ounce of eggs, about one thousand and fifty pounds of mul- 
berry leaves have been used. Under this supposition, it would appear 
that two thousand one hundred pounds of leaves are requisite to pro- 
duce one hundred and ten, or one hundred and twenty pounds of co- 
coons. 

3d. That one hundred and ten, or one hundred and twenty pounds 
of cocoons, obtained from one ounce of eggs, are worth a great deal 
more than a similar quantity obtained from two ounces of eggs. It is 
easy to prove these facts. 

If one ounce of eggs shall have produced, by the means stated, one 
hundred and twenty pounds of cocoons^ they will be fine; three hun- 
dred and sixty, at most, will produce a pound and a-half; and eleven or 
twelve ounces, at most, of these cocoons, will yield an ounce of exqui- 
sitely fine silk. When only fifty or sixty pounds of cocoons come from 
one ounce of eggs, it may generally be presumed that they are of in- 
ferior quality to the above, and it will require four hundred at least to 
make one pound and a half; and above thirteen ounces of these cocoons, 
instead of eleven or twelve ounces, to form one ounce of silk. More- 
over, when the worms have not been properly managed, there is no 
certainty as to the quantitj?- of the cocoons that will be gathered; and it 
happens, continually, that the same cultivator will, from the same 

* The greatest enemy of the silkworm is the red ant, the attacks of which insects must 
be carefully g-uarded against. To this end, all nail holes in the walls of the apartment 
should be filled with mortar; the sides of the breeding- frames oug'ht not to touch the 
^v•alls, nor oug-ht their posts to reach to the ceihng-. Streaks of thick molasses must also 
be made round the lower parts of the posts. If the worms be fed on tables, or move- 
able frames, similar to those of the Rev, Mr. Swayne, the same precautions may be used, 
or the legs may stand in a plate or bowl of water. 

Gockroachcs aiid mice must also be carefully g-uarded aguinst , 



75 [ 175 ] 

quantity of eggs, and the quality of the leaves, obtain at one time a 
fl.umber of cocoons, at another time few, and sometimes none. 

This chapter shall be divided into four paragraphs: 

1. Rearing of the hatched worms until the end of the first age. 

2. Rearino; of the worms in the second age. 

3. Rearing of the worms in the third age. 

4. Rearing of the worms in the fourth age. 

1. REARING OF THE WORMS IN THE FIRST AGE. 

We left in the small laboratory the worms hatched from the eggs at 
75° temperature, and distributed upon sheets of paper, in squares of 
about ten inches. Let us now begin their training. Supposing it is 
required to rear five ounces, which form a good sized laboratory, the 
space and quantity of leaves must be proportioned to the stated number 
of silkworms. 

First day^s t7'aini7ig'.— When the worms have accomplished their 
first castingofskin, they should occupy a space of nearly thirty-six feet 
eight inches square; hence the sheets of paper containing the worms, 
should be put upon wicker tables or trays, of these dimensions. 

The first day after the coming forth, and the distribution of the 
silkworms, they should be given in four meals, about three pounds 
three quarters of single soft leaves, chopped very small, dividing the 
time, so as to allow six hours between each meal; giving the smallest 
quantity for the first feeding, and gradually increasing the quantity at 
each meal. 

It is very beneficial to chop the leaf very small during the first age, 
and to scatter it lightly over the worms. The more the leaf is chop- 
ped, the more fresh cut edges are there to which the young insects fiis- 
ten themselves. In this manner, a few ounces of leaves will present 
so many edges and sides, that two hundred thousand insects may feed 
in a very small space. In this state, they bice the leaf quickly, and 
it is consumed before can it be withered."^ 

A quantity of leaves, ten or twenty times more abundant, that is 
not chopped small, would not be sufficient for this quantity of worms; 
because they require to find at once, and in a small space, the means 
of feeding easily. 

* It would seem to be unnecessary to chop the very young- leaves, so repeatedly in- 
sisted on by Dundolo. When a whole yoxing' leaf is placed on worms recently hatched, 
they eat throug-h the middle of it, and ascend to the u]);-)er surface, on whidi t!>ey con- 
tinue to feed, until the whole leaf is consumed. After some days, tiie> prefer to cat 
the edges of the leaves: injury mig-ht even ensue from the quantity of moist'.'re, which 
the young insects would imbibe from the bruised edges of the young and chojiped 
leaves: cultivators must make comparative experiments to del ermine the point. 
When the leaves have attained some size, then the chopping of then» is indispensably 
requisite. For a small quantity, the semicircular douldc cliopping knife rccomnKiid- 
ed by Dandolo, and figured in plate 2d, fig. 3d, answers well. Upon a larg(- jcale, a 
(itraw cutting box may be used. In both cases, th- knives should bi kept very s. <rp, 
to prevent the bruising of tlie leaves. It is important to rc;ii;nk, tl\;.l the It-a ■ nust 
not be cut until the moment they arc wanted, nor must any leaves be ^iven which ai^f 
covered with a substance like manna. 



[ 175 ] TO' 

The worms must be fed regularly four limes a day, and so managed, 
as never to give the whole quantity at once, as stated above; because, 
after the distribution of each meal, it is better to observe if some food 
should not be added in different spots. It is sometimes good to giv^ 
them a little food at intermediate times, as will be seen hereafter. 

The quantity of food fixed, which will be again specified, is that 
necessary for the wdiole day. In about an hour and a half, the silk- 
worm devours its portion of the leaves, and then remains more or 
less quiet. 

Whenever the food is given, care should be taken to spread and 
widen the small squares by degrees. If any of the chopped leaf should 
be scattered, it may be swept with a small broom into its place again. 

Second day. — On this day, about six pounds will be needed, chop- 
ped very small. This will suffice for the four regular meals, the first 
of which should be the least, increasing them as they proceed, as was 
done in the meals of the first day. 

The worm now begins to change in appearance; it no longer looks 
so dingy, or so bristled; the head enlarges, and whitens considerably. 

Third day. — This day twelve pounds of soft leaves, chopped very 
small, will be required for the four meals; the worms will now feed 
with avidity, and nearly the two-thirds of the sheets of paper should 
be engrossed by them. 

To satisfy the increased hunger of the insects, they should be given 
a pound and a half of lenves slightly scattered over them; should they 
devoifr it quickly, in an hour they should have an intermediate feed- 
ing, about half the quantity of the first meal, scattering the leaf very 
sparingly. This day the head of the silkworm is much whiter, the 
insects have perceptibly grown larger, and scarcely any hairiness can 
be perceived on them with the naked eye. The skin is of a sort of 
hazel color. When seen through a magnifying glass, their surfaces 
look shining, and their heads are of a silvery bright appearance, like 
mother-of-pearl, and rather transparent. 

Fourth day. — This day six pounds twelve ounces of chopped leaves 
should be given, for the quantity should be diminished as the appetite 
decreases; the first meal should be of about two pounds four ounces, 
and the other meals should decrease in proportion as the quantity of 
leaves given before appears not to have been thoroughly eaten. 

The cultivator m.ust resjulate the intermediate meals upon the appa- 
rent appetite of the silkworms, taking the food for tliem from the 
quantity of leaves allotted for the whole consumption of the day. 
The space on the sheets of paper, must visibly get covered with the 
worms. It is important, in this first age, to give the worms a plenty 
of room, by gently separating and spreading them, to avoid, as much 
as possible, their sleeping in heaps together. The constant care of 
enlarging the squares by degrees, when the worms are fed, will gradu- 
ally lead them to stretch out as they grow, and prevent their getting 
into heaps, which is very injurious to their constitution, health, and to 
that equality of fyi^ which it ^s bo dc-rirablp to maintain among them. 



77 [ 175 ] 

At the beginning of this day, many of the silkworms begin shaking 
their heads, which indicates that they feel overloaded by their skinsT 
Some of them eat little, but keep their heads reared up: with a mao"- 
nifying glass it may be seen that their heads are increased much, and 
grown very shining. The whole body of the insect seems transpa- 
rent, and those that are near their time of moulting, when seen against 
the light, are of a yellow livid tinge.: towards the close of this day, 
the greatest number of the silkworms appear torpid, and eat no more. 
As a general rule, it is proper here to apprize the cultivator, that, dur- 
ing the time of moulting, the worms must not be disturbed, for the 
process of changing their skins will thereby be interrupted. *' The 
hurdles should be cleaned before and after every moulting, until the 
fourth age, once during that age, before and after the fourth or last 
moulting, and every two days during the fifth age.* 

FiftJi day. — This day one pound and a half of young leaves, chop- 
ped small, will be about sufficient. They should be scattered very 
lightly several times in the day on the sheets of paper, where there 
appears still to be worms feeding. Should the worms hove left off 
feeding, it would be unnecessary to distribute any further quantitv. 
What has been said as to the different variations of quantity required 
by the silkworms of this age, is applicable to all the other 3ges. Eco- 
nomy and regularity in the distribution of the leaves cannot be too 
much urged. 

Towards the end of this day the worms are torpid; a few begin to 
revive. 

After the first moulting, the silkworm is of a dark ash color, show- 
jng a very distinct vermicular motion. The rings that compose its 
body, stretch and shrink more freely than heretofore. 

It must here be repeated, that it is of the utmost import that the food 
should now be chopped very finely, first with a knife, and then with 
a double-bladed hashing tool. 

When the weather admits of it, the leaves should be gathered several 
hours before the meal is given; they last very well a day, and more, if 
kept in a damp cool place, where there is no draught of air. It is al- 
ways desirable the le-^f should have lost its first sharpness, and not be 
given to the worms till six or eight hours after it has been gathered. 

A general view of this paragraph will now lie exhibited, and a few 
observations added that appear to be useful. 

The first age of the silkworm, reared in the temperature indicated, 
is almost always accomplished in five days, exclusive of the two days 
employed in their coming forth, and being removed and distributed. 
In this first stage, the silkworms proceeding from five ounces of eggs, 
have consumed thirty pounds of picked leaves, chopped small; in ridd- 
ing four pounds and a half, the refuse picked offthe leaves, the weight 
will make thirty-four and a half pounds of mulberry Iravcs, or about 
seven pounds of leaves from the tree to each ounce of silkworms. 

*" Nysten, p 305. Rechcrches surlcs ^laladics dos Vera a Soic, p. 105 — Pari:, 1503. 



[ 175 ] 78 

To complete the exactness of these observations, we must add two 
other alterations, to which the silkworms are subject before their 
moulting. 

1. We have seen that to form an ounceof silkworms just hatched, it 
requires 54,626 worms. After the first moulting, 3,840 are sulhcient 
to make up that weight. Thus the silkworm has increased, in about 
sjx days, fourteen times its own weight. 

2. Before the above six days, the silkworm was about a line* in 
length, and after those days it is about four lines long. 

In the first age, the air of the laboratory should onl}^ be renewed by 
opening the doors. The necessary degree of temperature must be 
maintained by the stove and wood fires in the fire-places; as we shall 
show hereafter. Nothing further is necessary for the thriving of the 
worms, and their healthy continuance^ 

2. SECOND AGE. 

Nearly seventy-three feet four inches square of the table or wicker 
trays, are needed for the accommodation of the worms proceeding 
from five ounces of eggs, until the accomplishment of their second cast- 
ing, or moulting. The temperature to keep the worms in during their 
second age, should be 73° and 75°, as before said. The insects should 
not be lifted from their litter until they are nearly all revived. The 
manner of removing them will be shortly explained. There is no harm 
in waiting till they are all well awake and stirring, even should it be 
for twenty or thirty hours from the time when the few first began to 
revive. 

When a great number of worms issue from the sheets of paper where 
they were placed, it is a sign that they should be removed from their 
litter, and by removing them a little sooner the others will soon re- 
vive also. 

We have said already that during the first age most cultivators 
destroy the lives and the health of a vast number of worms, by not 
attending to them sufiiciently. This inequality, and the evils resulting 
from it, are caused, 1st. By not having placed the silkworms in a 
space proportioned to their growth, in the course of their first age, 
which has allowed of some having fed well, while others could not feed; 
of some remaining under the litter, others upon it, which latter had the 
i)enefit of free air, instead of a close mephitical atmosphere; some began 
to fall into their torpid slumber sooner than others, and, being under 
the leaves, have moulted the last; others, in short, became torpid latest, 
and revived first, because they were upon the surface of the leayes, 
unloaded and unoppressed. 

2d. By not having placed the sheets of silkworms hatched the first 
day, in the coolest parts of the laboratory. 

3d. By not having placed the latest hatched worms in the hottest 
part of the laboratory. 

'A line is the twelfth part of an inch. 



79 [ 175 ] 

4th, and finally, by not having given the last hatched silkworms in- 
termediate meals, to bring on their growth a little faster. It follows 
from this w^ant of attention, that when the silkworms should pass from 
their first casting or moulting, to the second, some worms are torpid, 
some are reviving and beginning to feed, and some have not yet fallen 
into the torpor wiiich is to precede their change; and thus, on one 
whicker hurdle may we see silkworms of all sizes, which is very trou- 
blesome, to say no more; there is, besides, a great chance of the small- 
er w;orms perishing in their progress. All these losses will be avoid- 
ed by strictly following the rules given. 

First day of the second age, 

(Sixth of the rearing of tJie silkworm. ) 

For this day will be needed nine pounds of young tender shoots, and 
nine pounds of mulberry leaves, well picked and chopped small. 

The space of seventy -three feet four inches square, of hurdles, re- 
quired for the second age of the silkworms proceeding from five ounces 
of eggs, should be duly prepared; and when nearly all the worms are 
roused, and begin moving their heads, and rearing up as if they sought 
something, those at the edge of the paper having already left the litter 
on which they had lain, preparations should be made to remove them, 
that the sheets of paper may be cleansed. The worms should be re- 
moved from those sheets of paper first, where they are perceived to be 
most revived and stirring. Small twigs of the young shoots of the 
mulberry tree, with six or eight leaves on them, should be put over 
the silkworms; these boughs should be placed so that when spread out 
there may be an inch or two between them. ' When one of the sheets 
of paper is thus covered with silkworms, another is begun, and so on, 
till all are completed. This must be done speedily. There should be 
some boughs left, which will be wanted. These boughs will gradual- 
ly be entirely and thickly covered with worms. The small portable 
trays should be ready, upon which the boughs covered with worms must 
be put quickly, when taken oifthe sheets of paper. 

Instead of forming small squares, as was done for disposing of the 
new hatched worms, long strips should be laid down the middle of 
the wicker hurdles, prepared so that by widening them on each side, 
when arrived at the consummation of the second age, the whole space 
of seventy-three feet four inches of the hurdle should be entirely co- 
vered by the silkworms. 

The portable trays carry and place with ease the small boughs 
loaded with silkworms, and, by inclining them obliquely upon the 
hurdle, slip off the boughs gently into the strips allotted for them ; 
being careful, lightly with the hands, to move those that may not bf; 
properly placed, filling the vacant spots with them, so as to render 
the distribution regular. 

This operation concluded, some worms will be found to have rr- 
Hiained upon the litter ; with fre^h boughs., these may be removed as 



[ 175 ] So 

the others were, and clislribuled upon the hurdles ; should any aftet 
this remain torpid in the litter, they may be cast away. It is observ- 
able, that the silkworms like the tender boughs so much, that they 
are found heaped upon them, even when they have entirely eaten the 
leaves off, and never leave them to return to the litter below. 

An hour or two after the worms have been placed upon the hurdles, 
they should be given a meal of three pounds of leaves chopped small. 

When the boughs arc stripped of the leaves by the worms, there 
will be bare spaces in the paper, and the boughs swarming with worms. 
To remedy this, the leaves should be gently laid on those bare places, 
and the worms stretching upon them, will equally spread and fill the 
strips. The space occupied by the worms should be widened a little 
when they are first fed. It should be remembered to sweep up, with 
a small broom, the leaves that may be scattered. 

In the remainder of this day the silkworms should have, in two 
meals, the remaining six pounds of chopped leaves, with an interval 
of six hours between each, or according to the hours of the day which 
remain. 

When the silkworms have been removed to the clean hurdles, those 
they have left should be thoroughly cleaned, the sheets of paper 
cleansed and rolled up, and taken out of the laboratory. 

From the first day of the rearing of silkworms, until the first moult- 
ing, they consumed thirty pounds of leaves. 

Second day of the second age* 
(Seventh of the rearing- of the silkworm.) 

This day will be required about thirty pounds of cliopped leavesj 
this quantity, divided into four portions, should be given at intervals 
of six hours, the two first meals less plentiful than the two remaining. 
It is very necessary gradually to widen on both sides the strips in 
which the worms are distributed, that, at the close of the day, two- 
thirds of the allotted space should be covered. 

The body of the worm now acquires a clear hue, the head enlarges 
and becom.es whiter. Should some places be thinly covered with 
worms, by placing small boughs where the worms lie thick, they will 
fasten on them, and may then be removed to fill up the places which 
were not sufiiciently covered 5 the equality of the worms being very 
desirable, it should be constantly attended to, and those means prac- 
tised which have been stated through all the moultings, and whenever 
C/jrcumstances require them. 

Third day of the second age. 
(Eighth of the rearing- of the silkworm.) 

This day thirty-three pounds of chopped leaves, well picked, will 
be necessary, and this time the two first meals should be the largest. 
The leaves should be distributed in proportion as they are wanted, and 



81 I 175 2 

With attention, because the voracity of the silkworm abates towards 
evening; and many worms show, by rearing their heads, and not eat- 
ing, that they are approaching the period of torpor, and some already 
are become torpid. The strips should continue to be widened, so that 
at least four-fifths of the hurdle should be covered. 

Fourth day of the second age. 

(Ninth of the rearing" of the silkworm.*' 

This day only nine pounds of picked leaves, chopped small, will be 
required. The silkworms sink into torpor, and the next day they 
will have cast their skins, and will be roused, and thus will the second 
age be accomplished. If, between the moultings, any worms should 
appear sick, and cease to eat, they must be removed to another room 
where the air is pure, and a little warmer tlian that they have left, put 
on clean paper, and some fresh leaves chopped fine given to them. 

The alterations which the silk worm undergoes, besides that of the 
moulting in the second age, are as follows: 

.sriieir color becomes of a light gray; the hair is hardly to be per- 
ceived by the naked eye, and becomes shorter; the muzzle, which 
in the first age was very black, hard, and scaly, became immediately^ 
upon moulting, w^hite and soft, but afterwards again grew black, shin- 
ing, and shell V, as before. As the insect grows older, at each moult- 
ing its mu2.^ie hardens, because it needs to saw and Ijite larger and 
older leaves. 

There appear now two curved lines, opposite each other, upon the 
silkworm's back. 

The length of the silkworms, in the first age, was rather less than 
four lines; in the second age, of rather more than six lines. 

In four days it has increased its average weight fourfold: when is- 
suing from the first moulting, 3,240 silkworms formed one ounce: at 
this period, 610 will form this weight. 

As the insect grows, it breathes more freely, its excrements are 
more plentiful, which, as the number of hurdles also increase in the 
laboratory, makes it necessary that the interior air should be more re- 
novated; and to effect tliis, the ventilator in the floor, and the aperture 
made in the door, should be opened. 

Should there be no wind, and the external air be cold, the ventilator 
may be left open until the thermometer has lost a degree, or, indeed, 
two complete degrees. Then all should be closed ; the temperature 
again rises, and thus has the interior air been thoroughly renewed and 
purified.* 

* Great cave must be taken in picki*,^ and sorting' the leaves for tlie worms of tlie 
iirst ages, such as picking off all the twigs and stalks of the leaves, and to clear them^ 
as much as possible, from all useless parts. This operation is most essential in th(? 
two first ages. The sorting and picking is of importance, inasmuch as it enables us 
■^o put 15 or 20 per cent, less substance upon the trays, or frajnes^ than ^-ouldotfaei 
'*'jfe be done, and which the worms do not ea'- 

U 



£ 175 3 H'2 

X THIRD AGE. 

Firsi day of the third age^ 
(i Tenth day of the rearing of the silkworm.) 

In this first day, fifteen pounds of the small shoots will be necessary ^r 
and equally as much of the picked leaves, chopped rather less than 
hitherto; and, at the close of the age, may be still more coarsely 
chopped. 

The temperature of the apartment, during this third age, should be 
from 71° to 73°. The worms that have accomplished the second age, 
should not be removed from the wicker hurdles, until they are all 
nearly roused. Part will rouse the ninth day; part the tenth. There 
would be no harm if those first revived should wait twenty-four hours, 
till the rest are all roused. 

It is very easy to know the worms that are revived in this age: 
Ihey issue from their old skin with so different an aspect, that any 
body may distinguish them without the aid of description. A never- 
failing sign that the silkworms are roused, is an undulating motion they 
make with their head, when horizontally blown upon. The impres- 
sion of the air thus forcibly blown over them, is disagreeable and 
painful to them, when they have newly cast their skins; but gentle 
motion of the air through the laboratory is pleasant to them, and does 
them good, provided the renewed air is hot colder than their usual 
atmosphere. 

They should be removed in the same order and manner as in their 
former age. 

The space of 174 feet allotted to the third age, should be disposed 
in a strip down the centre of the wicker hurdle, and of nearly half 
the width of the- hurdle, so as to leave rather more than a quarter's 
width down each side of the strip. When the space is well ascertained 
which the silkworms are to occupy in their different ages, there is 
nothing more useful, and more economical, than to remove, cleanse, 
and place them in the manner described. Once placed upon their 
wicker hurdles, they are no more to be touched until their moulting 
is* accomplished. They feed well, without interfering with one an- 
other, and without requiring to have the intervals on the sheets of pa- 
per cleaned. Their litter does not become mouldy, unless there should 
be a very unusual and continued dampness of weather. 

The fifteen pounds of young shoots afford the silkworm its first 
meal, as in the preceding age. When they have eaten the leaves upon 
the shoots, they should have a second meal of about seven pounds and 
a half of the leaves — carefully filling with leaves the space between 
the shoots, to equalize the distribution of the worms upon the strips. 

It must be unceasingly repeated, to ensure the silkworms continuing 
of an equal size, the cultivator must always watch those persons who 
distribute the food, that it may be perfectly even, and all the worms 
•^nabled to partalie of it. A waste of leaves is not only a real \o^^ 



83 L ^^'' J 

but also is apt, by thickening the litter in heaps, to ferment, and 
thereby cause disease. 

The worms should have their last meal this day, of seven pounds 
and a half of leaves, which completes the feeding of the day. 

Should the removal of the litter be late in the daj^, so that the silk- 
worms could not be given the three meals, that portion of the leaves 
may be added to those of the following day. Two active, handy per- 
sons, should take but one hour to remove and distribute the worms 
upon 174 feet of hurdles. 

As fast as the worms are lifted off, the litter should be carried out of 
the laboratory, rolled up in the sheets of paper. When taken out, the 
litter should be examined, in case any of the torpid worms may be re- 
maining in it; and if this is done in any place sheltered from rain and 
wind, far from injuring the worms, it will tend to rouse them sooner 
than they would have roused in the laboratory, to which they must be 
taken back, by offering them young shoots, to which they will fasten., 
and thus be carried safely. 

The -atest worms should be placed apart, as their next moulting will 
be a day later also; or, should it be desired to bring them on equally 
"wiih the others, by giving them rather more space between them on 
the hurdles, and putting them in the hottest part of the laboratory, this 
may be managed. 

Now, as the worms begin to eat more, it is useful to employ a square 
basket, with which twice the work may be done in feeding the worms, 
compared to the usual method of holding the shoots and leaves in an 
apron, and feeding the worms with one hand only. By means of this 
basket, which may be suspended with a hook, and slide in a groove 
along the edge of the wicker trays, the feeder may arrange and dis- 
tribute the food with both hands, and thus feed two trays of worms 
at once, by standing on high steps or ladders. 

After two or three meals this day, there is a. very sensible change in 
the silkworms. They are much larger, their muzzle is grown longer, 
and their color clearer. 

Second day of the third age, 
(Eleventh of the rearing- of the silkworm.) 

This day 90 pounds of picked leaves, chopped, will be needed. 

The two first meals the least copious, because, towards the close of 
the day, the silkworms grow voraciously hungry. 

The strips should be widened whenever they are fed, to allow them 
room. 

Third day of the third age, 

Twelfth of the reai'ing of the silkworm. 

This day there should be given 97 pounds of picked leaves, chop- 
ped, divided into four meal.** — the two first mcnls the most plefntiifid 



I 173 2 ^4 

Towards evening the hunger of the silkworm decreases; consequently, 
the last should be the least meal. 

This day the silkworms grow fast, their skins whiten, the bodies 
are nearly transparent, and the heads are longer. If a hurdle of 
worms is seen against the light, before they are fed, they seem of the 
color of whitish amber, and appear powdery. The contortions they 
Jiegin to make with their heads, show that their change approaches. 

Fourth day of the third age. 

(Thlfteenth of the rearing of the silkworm.) 

This day about fifty-two pounds and a half of chopped leaves will 
fee sufficient. The decrease of food is consequent upon the diminution 
©f appetite already mentioned ; many of the worms are already torpid. 

They should have four meals; the largest first, and the last the 
least meal. Those only that seem to require it, should be fed. 

Should a great number of silkworms on one table be torpid, while 
others continue to require food, these should be given a slight meal, 
without waiting for the stated hour of their feeding, to satisfy them, 
that they may sink into torpor quickly. 

Fifth day of the third age, ^ 

(Fourteenth of the rearing of the silkworm.) 

This day twenty-seven pounds of picked leaves, chopped, will be 
about the quantity; if it is not enough, more may be added: if too much, 
less given. 

These two last days, the silkworms begin to cast about some silk 
down. 

The insect seeks free space to slumber in dry and solitary spots, 
rearing its head upv/ards, which is known by finding it on the edges 
of the paper, where any stalks stick up, upon which it retires. All 
of them not being able thus to separate from each other, are obliged to 
remain upon their litter, but testify uneasiness by rearing up their 
heads. 

When on the point of sinking into torpor, they completely void all 
excremental matter, and there remains in their intestinal tube, a yel- 
low lymph alone, rather transparent, and which supplies almost all 
the animal fluid in them. This is that which, before the surface of 
the skin they are about to cast, becomes wrinkled and dry, causes 
Ihem to appear of a yellowish white color, like amber, and semi-trans- 
parent. 

When the worms prepare for the third, and even the fourth moult- 
ings, the air of the apartment should be gently agitated, but the tempe- 
rature must not be much varied. This may be done by opening the 
ventilators in the ceiling, and those in the floor. 



86 [ 17^ J 

:^ixth day of the third age. 
(Fifteenth of the rearing* of the silkworra.} 

On this day the silkworms begin to rouse, and thus accomphsh the 
third age. 

The general view of this age presents the following result: In six 
days the silkworm goes through its third age. In this age, those 
worms proceeding from five ounces of eggs, have consumed nearly 
300 pounds of leaves and young shoots. 

The muzzle of the silkworm during the third age, has maintained 
a reddish ash color, and is no longer shining and black, as it appears 
in the two first ages, but it is lengthened and more prominent. The 
head and body are much enlarged since the casting of the skin, even 
before they have eaten at all: proving that they were straitened in 
the skin they have cast, and being now unconfined, the air alone has 
expanded their bulk. This growth, which is considerable, is more 
visible in this age than in the preceding. 

When this age is completed, the body of the silkworm is more 
wrinkled, particularly about the head; they are of a yellowish white, 
or rather fawn color, and to the naked eye they have no appearance 
of hairiness. In this third age, we first hear, when the worms are 
fed, a little hissing noise, similar to that of green wood burning. This 
noise does not proceed from the action of the jaws, but from the mo- 
tion of the feet, which they are continually moving: this noise is such» 
that, in a large laboratory, it sounds like a soft shower of rain; by de- 
grees, when the worms fasten to their food, the noise ceases. The 
average length of the silkworms, which was six lines after the second 
moulting, is become, in less than seven days, above twelve lines. The 
weight of the insect has increased fourfold in the same period. 

It has been sufficient, during this age, to open the ventilator, the 
door, and even the windows, when the weather was still and fine, so 
as to lower the temperature by a degree only. In damp, close days, 
a small wood fire, in the fire-place, renews the air, by drawing a cur- 
rent, without injuring the interior atmosphere. During this age, it 
never happened that the exterior temperature, although higher than 
the interior, went beyond the prescribed limits. 

4. REARING OP THP SILKWORM IN THE FOURTH AGE. 

In this age, the worms proceeding from five ounces of eggs, should 
occupy a space of about 412 square feet: the temperature should be 
from 68° to 71°. In this fourth age, as in the fifth, there will proba- 
bly be days in which it will not be possible to maintain the tempera- 
ture of 71°, because of the heat of the weather as the season advances; 
and in spite of artificial means it may very probably rise to 73° or up- 
wards. 

This augmentation of temperature does no harm. It is sufficient 
that the circulation of air be not interrupted. The moment it is per- 



C 175 ] 8e 

ceived that the exterior atmosphere begins to heat the laboratory, the 
ventilators should be opened, as well as all apertures on the side ex- 
posed to the sun. In the space of two hours, some of my laboratories 
have been observed to rise from 71° to 80°. All the apertures were 
then opened, and the air being stagnant, some faggot wood was burnt 
in the fire-place, to establish a complete current of air, and thus change 
the air of all the rooms thoroughly. If instead of thus acting when 
the heat of the season ceases suddenly, (which augments the fermenta- 
tion of the litter,) we should exclude the exterior air from the labora- 
tory, we may chance to lose whole broods of silkworms; because, as 
they grow, the mass of leaves and litter increasing, the dampness pro- 
ceeding from it will more quickly produce fermentation, the heat 
would also augment, and the air would soon be not only moist but 
pestilential. 

As before said, the silkworms should not be lifted off the hurdles, 
after they have completed their third age, until they are nearly all 
well roused; because, should the first roused have to wait a day and 
a half, it will not hurt them. Those early roused should be put in the 
coolest part of the apartment, and the late roused worms in the warm- 
est part. If this should be troublesome, it may suffice to give the latest 
roused worms more space, by keeping them farther asunder, and they 
will soon come up to the others. It is easy to tell, by the thermome- 
ters, which parts are constantly the hottest, and this knowledge will 
serve to render all the silkworms even sized. All this care is indispen- 
sable, if the worms are required to draw their silk equally, and at the 
same period, particularly as there accrue great evils when some of the 
silkworms rise too much above the others. It is after the third moult- 
ing that the silkworms should be moved into the large laboratory, ia 
which they are to remain until the end. The space of this large labo- 
ratory should contain at least 917 square feet of wicker hurdles or ta- 
bles. Experience constantly demonstrates the advantage of having 
buildings proportionate to what is required of them, as much on ac- 
count of economy of fuel, if the season be cold, as the convenience of 
attendance. There would certainly be no great objection should there 
be two or three small contiguous buildings, instead of one large labo- 
ratory, so that they afforded an equal space. The only advantage 
that would thus be lost, would be the great facility enjoyed in a spa- 
cious building, of establishing and maintaining constant and regular 
currents of air. It must here be repeated how advantageous to the 
art of rearing silkworms is the practice of distributing them in regu- 
lar strips and squares, which should be extended and widened, and 
gradually filled with these insects, as they accomplish their various 
ages. 

2d. Because the leaf distributed upon evenly proportioned spaces, is 
entirely eaten before it is withered and spoilt. 

3d. Because, by this practice, the worms can feed with facility, 
move with ease, and breathe more freely: all decisive advantages for 
these insects. 



S7 [ 175 J 

We must forego these advantages when the worms lie too thick, 
in that condition they cover the surface so closely, that the leaves on 
which they lie are wasted, as they cannot possibly cat them ; while, on 
the contrary, when they have a plenty of room, they seek, in moving, 
every atom of the leaf, and eat it up. Besides, when straitened, the 
action of their breathing tubes is hindered, and confined by the pres- 
sure, either superior or lateral, of one worm against the other; wihilst, 
when in full space, the action of their respiratory organs is free, which 
materially contributes to their health. 

First day of the fourth age. 
(Sixteenth of the rearing' of the silkworm.) 

On this day 37| pounds of the young shoots will be needed, and 60 
pounds of picked leaves coarsely chopped with a large blade. 

When the moment of removing the worms from the hurdles comes, 
one or two hurdles only at a time should be covered over with young 
shoots. These shoots, loaded with worms, are afterwards put upon 
portable trays and removed, as in the first moultings. Should there 
not be a sufficiency of small boughs, branches of 15 or 20 leaves, 
tied together by the stalks, will answer the purpose. The stifier 
these leaves the better they remove the worms, and with less in- 
convenience are they carried. This removal must be performed bv 
two or three persons; one to fill the portable trays, or two to carry 
them, and one who will gently remove the silkworms from these trays 
upon the hurdles in the space allotted for them. In this manner it 
can be executed with ease and promptitude The strips into which 
are arranged the silkworms upon the hurdles, should occupy about half 
the space of them. 

It has been mentioned that the worms that are to occupy 174 feet of 
hurdles must be placed in the middle of a space of about 412 feet t> 
inches square.'^ 

When all the silkworms that are revived have been successively 
removed, there remain still some upon the 174 feet of hurdle, torpid, 
that have not the strength to climb upon the shoots or branches of 
leaves. 

The early roused worms being removed into the great laboratorj'y 
if they have eaten all the leaves on the young shoots and leaves that 
served to carry them, and they remain without food, they should then 
be given thirty pounds of leaves chopped a little: with these the in- 
tervals between the young shoots must be filled, and the strips formed 
into regular order, by sweeping into their place any boughs or leaves 
that are scattered irregularly. 

After this second meal, those worms that were heaped together will 
be seen stretching out evenly. The other thirty pounds of leaves 

* It is impoptant here again to caution the cultivator a£jaiiist giving; the worm5? 
branches or twigs with the fruit on them. If the worms eat the fruit they will become 
•^ick, and besides the litter is greatly increased by not picking the leaves clean. 



[ 17i3 J 8S 

should not be given uiilii the second meal has been consumed; and 
should the young shoots and leaves not be required, they may be given 
the next day. 

Although it is not a general custom to chop or cut the leaves for 
silkworms, in this fourth age, it has been found very beneficial to give 
it to them, coarsely cut up; fresh leaves, slightly cut up, by exhaling 
a stronger smell, stimulate their hunger, and the cut edges are more 
easy to bite. 

The late roused silkworms should be placed on hurdles, distinct 
from the earliest worms. 

At the end of this day, the worms begin to show some vigor; they 
move quickly to the leaves; they grow perceptibly, lose their ugly 
eolors, become slightly white, and assume more decided animal action. 

When all the silkworms are taken out of the small laboratory, the 
hurdles from which they have been removed should be well cleaned. 
This should be done quickly, if any of the silkworms are to be put 
into the small laboratory again for the convenience of space. 

Second day of the fourth age. 
(Seventeenth of the rearing of the silkworm.) 

For this day will be wanted 165 pounds of sorted leaves, slightly 
iiut up. The two first meals should be the lightest, and the last most 
copious. 

The worms grow fast, and their skins continue to whiten. 

In giving the meals, the space occupied by the worms should be 
widened. 

Third day of the fourth age, 
(Eighteenth of the rearing of the silkworm.) 

• For this day will be needed 225 pounds of sorted leaves, a little cut* 
The two first meals ought to be the most plentiful^ the last meal to be 
of about 75 pounds. 

Fourth day of the fourth age. 
(Nineteenth of the rearing of the silkworm. ) 

This day the distribution of the cut leaves should be 255 pounds; 
the three first meals of about 75 pounds each ; the fourth of 45 pounds 
only. The worms still get whiter, and at this time are more than 
5)n inch and a half long. 

Fifth day of the fourth age. 

(Twentieth of the rearing cf the silkworm. ) 

iSo more than 128 pounds of picked leaves will be needed this day; 
because the silkworm's hunger diminishes much. The first meal should 



89 I 175 ] 

®e the most considerable. A great number of the 'worms become tor- 
pid on this day. 

The leaves should only be distributed as they are wanted, and only 
©n those hurdles where the worms are perceived not to be torpid, that 
they should not be wasted uselessly. The worms are this day an inch 
and three-quarters long. 

Sixth day of the fourth age. 
(Twenty-rfirst of the rearing- of the silkworm.) 

Thirty-five pounds of picked leaves are enough for this day. It is 
easy to find out where, and in what quantities, the worms need feed. 

Since the preceding day, the silkworms begin to decrease in size, as 
they have cleansed and cleared themselves of all nutritive substances, 
before they sink into their torpor. 

The greenish color of the rings of their body has disappeared, and 
their skin is quite wrinkled. 

Seventh day of the fourth age. 
(Twenty-second of the rearing- of the silkworm. ) 

The silkworms rouse in this day, and accomplish their fourth age. 
In generalizing this paragraph, let us suggest the following observa- 
tions:* 

In about seven days, the worms have accomplished their fourth 
moulting, and cast their skins. 

They have consumed^ in that period, 207 pounds of leaves for each 
ounce of eggs. 

In the seven days of the fourth age, the worms which were about 
one inch long, have grown half an inch in length. In this age, their 
weight is augmented fourfold. 

After the third moulting, 144 insects weighed one ounce; it now re- 
quires only 35 to make up the ounce. 

After this moulting they are of a darker color: grayish, with a red 
cast. 

During tliis age, shavings of wood should be burnt in the fire-places 
three or four times a day; dry straw will answer the purpose also, as 
this is done to renew and lighten the air of the room, without particu- 
larly heating it; should it be necessary to heat the laboratory, that 
should be done either with the stove, or by burning large wood in the 
fire-places. 

* Mr. Stephenson directs, that "as soon as severa] of the worms have parsed their 
fourth mouhing-, all those which rouse during the two first daysshouhl be put on one 
hurdle, those of the next two days on another, that each parcel may be carried on as 
equally as possible. This remark may be useful to those who depend upon the pre- 
carious temperature of the air, and do not use a stove. According- to the systpro of 
Dandol^, the whole period will occi'.pv nnlv two d-iy^:. > 
12 



[ 175 ] 90 

When straw or shavings are burnt, the ventilator should be opened 
for the circulation of the air. If the exterior temperature be not cold, 
and the weather calm, the doors and windows may also be opened ; 
when the interior temperature by these means is lowered half a de- 
gree, the windows and doors should again be closed, leaving the ven- 
tilators open, and the temperature will rise again. Those who have 
Venetian blinds to the windows, should open the windows to allow the 
air to enter. Persons who attend silkworms should breathe as freely 
in the great laboratory as in the open air; they should feel no differ- 
ence but that in the heat of the interior temperature, and the latter 
in temperature, not in the closeness. Therefore, should the air ap- 
pear heavy, the fire of straw or shavings ought to be lighted, to renew 
the air, which is done in a moment. In the laboratories described, 
the interior air is more pleasant than the exterior air, from the delight- 
ful smell of tlie mulberry leaves. 

In proceeding in the manner detailed, the silkworms will breathe 
continually a pure and dry atmosphere, which makes them healthyj 



CHAPTER IX. 



0F" THE KEAaiXG OE THE SILKWORMS IN THE FIRST PERIOD OF THE 
FIFTH AGE, OR UNTIL THE MOMENT WHEN THEY PREPARE~TO RISE 
ON THE HEDGES. 

The fifth age of the silkworm is the longest, and most decisive. 
Previously, therefore, to resuming the description of the daily pror 
CTess of the silkworms, a few practical observations will be given. 

Should the worms die in the first age, the loss is trifling, because 
expense is not prolonged 5 while, on the contrary, should the worm? 
perish in the fifth age, the loss is considerable, leaves having been 
consumed, labor paid for, and other expenses incurred j besides 
seeing the hopes of ail that profit vanish, which had been reckoned 
upon. 

It is then very needful to know the condition of the worms in the 
fifth age, to learn how to manage, so as to ensure their health and 
strengtli against the efiects of a bad atmosphere, or other evils that 
assail them. 

As the silkv/prms grow in the fifth age, they are liable to three 
evils, which attack them according to their strength, and to their dis- 
tribution in the laljoratory, and may weaken them so as to cause their 
speedy destruction. These are, 1st. the great quantity of fluid dis- 
engaged from the insects, their dung, leaves and litter. 2. The damp 
hot atmosphere of the laboratory. These causes of disease, and the 
means of preventing them, shall be treated of in the chapter on th^ 
diseases of silkworms. 



91 [ 175 ] 

OP THE REARING OF SILKWORMS UNTIL THE APPROACH OP THEIR 

MATURITY. 

The worms have now approached the time when they prepare to 
rise, and when they reject the food which they had lately so voracious- 
ly devoured^ 

First day of the fifth age. 

(Tv^enty-third of the rearing of the silkworm.) 

Since the preceding day, almost all the silkworms miist have ac- 
complished their fourth moulting, or casting of skin, and be already 
roused. 

The laboratory should have uniformly 68° or 69^° of heat. The 
silkworms proceeding from five ounces of eggs, until the termination 
of their fifth age, should occupy 917 feet of trays, or iS3 feet 5 inches 
for each ounce of eggs. 

The silkworms proceedmg from one ounce of eggs in the fifth age, 
consume about 1,098 pounds of sorted, picked leaves, which makes 
the quantity of leaves required by the five ounces to be 5,490 pounds 
weight. 

After the fourth moulting, the food should consist of the full grown 
leaves of the oldest trees: for the appetite of the worms is great, and 
they require the strongest nourishment to strengthen them, and to pro- 
mote their growth. Their last feed should be given late at night, or 
just before going to bed, and as early as possible in the morning.* 
To facilitate their removal, branches to which the leaves are attachedj 
may be given. 

As. soon as the branches are loaded with worms, they sliould be 
taken "off, and put upon the little portable trays. If the silkworms of 
one wicker tray are almost all roused, they will be sufficient to fill the 
space of rather more than two wicker trays; and there should be form- 
ed a space in the middle of the two wicker trays, of about half the 
width of the tray. 

When five hundred and eight square feet are filled, the trays that 
are left empty should be cleaned. The hurdles must be cleaned every 
two days during the fifth age.t 

If, in cleaning, any worms should be found roused, by putting some 
shoots or leaves, they may be taken off, like the others; should some 
lOuse after this, they may be taken up with the hand, and put with 
the others; but if any remain still in torpor, they must be cast away. 

The sheets of paper with the litter must be rolled up, as was done 
in the former age, and poured into the basket prepared for this, which 
is to be carried out at once. 

In observing the litter when it is removed into a dry place, should 
«omp roused worms be found in it, they may be placed distinct from 

* Stephenson. 

'; Nv«ter, p^g"*" ^.05 



[ 175 ] 92 

the others, in the warmest parts of the laboratory, with more space> 
that they may thrive faster, and be even with the early worms. The 
worms should cover rather more than half the space allotted to them. 
Of the six persons, required to perform this task, one or two of the most 
handy and neat should be directed to lift and put the silkworms on 
the portable trays; two should carry them, and one should remove and 
place them on the wicker, while the others roll the papers and litter, 
clean the hurdles, and carry out the dirt. 

If it is judged necessary, another person may be employed in distri- 
buting shoots to the later silkworms, which are but just rousing, that 
all things may proceed without bustle or confusion. 

Should it be deemed advisable to divide the operation of cleaning 
and removing, it may be done by cleaning only half the wickers in 
the morning, and the other half in the evening; in which case, the 
worms whose changing is deferred to the evening, must have one or 
two meals given themj yet changing them all at once, and it may be 
done in four hours, when the worm is steady, is deemed preferable. 

The ninety pounds of shoots and leaves on which the silkworms 
were removed, furnish them with an abundant meal; the other ninety 
pounds of sorted leaves should be divided into two meals, which should 
be given them every six hours. In giving the first meal, straighten 
the lines of the strips on the hurdles, by sweeping any straggling leaves 
or worms into regular order. At the third meal the strips should be 
widened a little. Should there be too many worms in some parts, 
they should be taken to cover the barer parts of the wickers. 

The silkworms appear tolerably strong this first day. 

If the exterior temperature be mild, and little different from that of 
the laboratory, it might be left open while cleaning, to admit, on all 
sides, a free current of air. Shavings must also be burned to- make a 
blaze; this is particularly necessary, when the cald or dampness of 
the weather precludes opening all the apertures of the laboratory while 
cleaning. In cases of cold and high winds^ the upper and lower ven- 
tilators may be kept open, which will renew the air as much as the 
blaze; and, in all cases, the thermometer and hygrometer must posi 
tively regulate all proceeding by their indications. 

Second day of the fifth age. 

(Twenty-fourth of the rearing of the silk worm.) 

For this day will be wanted two hundred and seventy pounds oF 
leaves, sorted, divided into four feeds; the first, which should be the 
least, of about fifty-two pounds, and the last, which is the most plen- 
tiful, of ninety-seven pounds weight. 

In distributing the food, the strips should be widened gradually. 

At the close of this dny the worms are much whiter and considerat- 
ely developed. 



93 [ 175 ] 

Third day of the fifth age, 
(Twenty-fifth of the rearing of the silkworm. ; 

This day the silkworms will require about 420 pounds of sorted 
leaves. The first feed should be of 77 pounds; the last feed should k». 
^e largest, and of about 120 pounds weight. 

The worms continue to whiten, and many appear upwards of two 
inches long. 

They could eat, on this day, a larger quantity than specified; but 
it is thought most beneficial not to add to this quantity, that they may 
thoroughly digest it; besides which, this treatment strengthens theiV 
constitution, and makes them livelier. The strips they occupy should 
be widened, whenever they are fed. 

Fourth day of the fifth age. 

(Twenty-sixth of the rearing" of the silkworm.) 

This day the silkworms will want five hundred and forty pound?? 
weight of sorted leaves; the first feed should be of one hundred and 
twenty pounds weight, and the last of one hundred and fifty. 

The worms now are beginning to grow voracious and stronger; some 
sre two inches and a half long. 

Fifth day of the fifth age, 
(Twenty-seventh of the rearing- of the silkworm.) 

The worms will this day want eight hundred and ten pounds of pick- 
ed leaves; the first feed of one hundred and fifty pounds, and the last 
meal of two hundred and ten pounds weight. 

If necessary, the silkworms should have some intermediate food; 
when the regular distribution of leaves is devoured in less than an hour 
and a half, the worms must not be suffered to fast five hours, but re- 
ceive some leaves in the interim; particularly if there should have been 
wickers on which the worms had not been as well fed as the others at 
first; for although the quantity of food for this day has been fixed, it is 
always necessary to be regulated by experience. Should the worms 
want more food, they must have it. 

In the course of the fifth age, the wicker trays should be cleaned. 
If the litter is dry and fresh, they need not be shifted till the evening 
of this day, or the beginning of the second day; but this must depend 
on circumstances, and the convenience of the cultivator. Cnre must 
be taken in distributing the last meal on this day, only to feed four 
wicker tra3^s at a time, to allow of time insensibly to lift off the silk- 
worms before they have finished eating the leaves given them. A.< 
this time the worms are not to be removed, the wickers must bt 
cleaned after nnother mar.rirr. Thf^ following i> the nrHiner oT clr':gi- 
ing them: 



i 175 ] 94 

The portable trays are put on the edges of the wickers, and vvheii 
the leaves are loaded with silkworms, they are put in single layers ort 
the portable trays. When several of these are filled, the litter, with 
or without the sheets of paper, must be carried off in square baskets^ 
which are hung near the wicker trays; the litter being removed, the 
paper should be swept and cleaned with light brooms; the sheets ot 
paper are laid down again, one after another, and the leaves, with the 
worms, replaced on them. This is repeated until the litter has been 
entirely changed throughout the laboratory. 

Upon a small scale, the shelves or hurdles may be cleaned by placing 
a line of fresh chopped leaves the whole length of the hurdles, 
near the worms, which will immediately attach themselves thereto. 
They may then be taken up by means of the leaves and stalks they 
cling to, and be removed to. another hurdle or shelf, when the litter 
they have made can be swept away, and removed from the room. 

When one basket is full, it is carried out, and another substituted. 
Great care should be taken not to hurt or bruise the worms in re- 
moving them. Six persons, at least, should be employed to perform 
Ihis cleaning of the litter expeditiously, and in their number are not 
included those who carry the litter out. 

The silkworms that have been cleaned should be fed, and those that 
are to be cleaned last, may be fed before they are cleaned, that none of 
them, may fast too long 

It must not be forgotten that, during this period, as the case may 
require, there should be light blazing fires burnt; the fumigating bot- 
tle* should also be passed twice round in the laboratory, and the win- 
dows and ventilators opened according to the state of the exterior at- 
mosphere; but, in all cases, the ventilators in the ceiling and floor, and 
all the doors^ must be open. If the exterior air be very damp, the 
small blazing fires may be frequently repeated; and if they raise the 
temperature too much, it may easily be lowered by opening the ven- 
tilators and windows, being guided by the thermometer and hygrome- 
ter.* 

Sixth day of the fifth age. 
(T>venly-eighth of the reariiig- of the silkworm .) 

The silkworms should have 975 pounds of picked leaves, divided 
into fiv^e feeds; the last of which should be the most plentiful. The 
silkworms now eat most voraciously; 

If, after having distributed the leaves, the quantity appears insuffi- 
cient upon some wickers, and it has been devoured in an hour, an inj 
termed! ate meal should be added. 

Knowing the quantity of leaves to be given in the day^ it is easy to 
distribute them either into four or five m.eals, as it may appear to suit 
the silkworms best. If the wickers could not be all cleaned in thr- 
preceding day? the operation may be finished this day. 

* See the chapter on the diseases of silkworms 



95 [ 175 J 

Some of the worms are now three inches long, and are become 
whiter; to the touch they present a soft velvety surface, and are strong 
and healthy. By giving more food to the worms last removed from 
the hurdles, and by allowing them more space, they will soon equal 
the earliest in size. 

Seventh day of the fifth age. 
(Twenty-ninth of the rearing of the silkworm. ) 

The silkworms will require this day 900 pounds weight of well 
sorted leaves. The first meal should be the largest, and those follow- 
ing should diminish; should there be any intermediate meals wanted, 
they must be given as before. 

Some worms will now be seen upwards of three inches long. The 
extremity of the insect begins to grow shining and yellowish, which 
shows they are approaching to maturity, 

Some of them begin to eat with less voracity. They this day at- 
tain their largest size, and their greatest weight. On an average, six 
silkworms now weigh an ounce. Thus their weight has increased five- 
fold in seven days since the fourth moulting, at which time thirty . 
three silkworms made an ounce. 

Eighth day of the fifth age. 
(Thirtieth of the rearing' of the silkworm.) 

The silkworms this day must have 660 pounds of well sorted leave:^. 
The proportion of leaves must diminish, as the appetite of the worrn.'^ 
decreases much. The food must, as usual, be divided into four messes, 
give them the largest meals first, and gradually diminish. The firsi 
meal of 210 pounds of leaves. 

That the maturity of the worms may be perfectly alike, some inter 
mediate food should be given according to necessity, to bring on thosf 
worms that are backward. 

During the last days of the rearing of the silkworms, they wshould bt 
fed with the best sort of leaves, always culled from the oldest trees 

The silkworms now advance towards maturity, which may be per- 
ceived by their yellow color, which increases from ring to ring. Their 
backs begin to shine, and the rings lose their dark green color. Th( 
advance to maturity is also denoted in some of them, by tlie dinnnu- 
tion of their bulk in the course of this day; and by their seeking to 
fix themselves to the edge of the hurdles to avoid the substances wit'j 
which they are loaded. 

This day, and more or less speedily, according as the signs of ma- 
turity increase, and that the litter becomes moist, the wickers should 
be cleaned in the manner before described, being very careful to take 
the worms gently with the leaves upon which they lie, that they ma\ 
not be bruised. Light firrs, and fumigate with the bottle, to purify 



[ 175 ] 96 

the air; the ventilators, and the use of the thermometer and hygrome- 
ter are, in this change of litter, more essential than on any former 

change.*' 

Ninth day of the fifth age. 
(Thirty-firstoftlie rearing of the silkworm.) 

The silkworms this day need 495 pounds of leaves, which must be 
distributed as it may be wanted. 

The yellow hue of the silkworms grows deeper, their backs shine 
more, and, in some of them, the rings assume a golden appearance. 
The muzzle is become of a brighter red than it was in the beginning. 

From time to time, a gentle fire should be lighted, particularly in 
the night; twice a day the fumigating bottle should be passed through 
the laboratory; the ventilators should never be shut when the fire is 
lighted, nor indeed at all, that the air may be renewed entirely. 

Although the silkworms reared according to the methods described, 
have been exposed to every variation of seasons, and to many acci- 
dents that might have proved injurious to them, they have still been 
found to preserve their full health and vigor. 

It has already been said, that, should it be impossible, from the heat 
of the season, to keep the temperature at the degree fixed, it must be 
as nearly kept as may be possible, by using all means of cooling the 
air, and causing a free circulation in the laboratory. The preserva- 
tion of the proper temperature of the apartment, at this stage of the 
worm, cannot be too seriously impressed upon the cultivator. If sud- 
den and great heat in the weather should take place, as often happens 
at this time, serious loss may be suffered without proper precautions. 
The increased heat to which the worms are exposed, causes them to 
e.ease eating, to leave theirfeeding shelves, and to wander aboutthe room 
in order to find corners and places to form their cocoons, before the silk 
iluid has been fully elaborated or matured; thus defeating, inagreat mea- 
sure, all the care previously bestowed upon them. To guard against a 
sudden heat in the weather, the window shudders must be closed while 
the sun is beating on them, the ventilators in the ceiling, or other 
parts of the room, kept open, and, if possible, tubs of ice should be 
brought into the apartment, until the thermometer shows a diminution 
of temperature to Ike proper degree. The windows must also be 
opened every evening until sunrise next morning, and water sprink- 
led on the floor to promote evaporation, and, consequently, a freshness 
in the air. Under the head of the diseases of silkworms, it will be 
seen that great heat in the weather, at this stage, will even kill the 
worms. The cfi'ect'S de^icribed above, of a sudden increase of heat in 
the weather, which continued three days, were seen exemplified last 
s'jmmerjUpon the worms in a large establishment, by the writer. 

* If must be borne in mind, that the directions of Mr. Dandolo, constantly refer to 
■ji large laboratory, in which worms, the prodvice of five ounces of eg-g-s, are rearing' 
When the air of the. apartment is sufficiently pvn-e, and tlie temperature properly 
regnilated by the thermometer, ther€ will be no necessity for ftret?, urslcss in damp 
\yeather, nor for fa rnig-at ions. 



97 £ 175 ] 



CHAPTER X. 

©P THE REARING OF THE SILKWORMS IN THE LAST PERIOD OF THE 
FIFTH age; that IS TO SAY, UNTIL THE COCOON IS PERFECTED. 

Observations on the subject, *- 

The fifth age can only be looked on as terminated when the cocooni 
is perfect. 

The cleanliness of the tables in these last days of the fifth age, re- 
quires great attention to preserve the health of the silkworms. 

It must be added, that, if the quantity of leaves ordered for the 
tenth and last day of the fifth age be insufficient, a very little more 
should be allowed them; for they should now be stinted, even if there 
chance to be some leaves left. And also, should the worms take 
eleven days, instead of ten, to come to perfection, the same quantity 
might suffice. There are causes we cannot trace, which hasten or 
slacken the progress of the silkworms towards maturity by some 
hours.* 

Tenth day of the fifth age, 

(Thirty-second of the rearing' of the silkworm.) 
Matured perfection of the Silkworm. 

This last day they attain perfection, which may be ascertained by 
the following indications: 

1st. When, on putting some leaves on the wickers, the insects get 
upon the leaves without eating them, and rear their heads as if in 
search of something else. 

2d. When, on looking at them horizontally, the light shines through 
them, and they appear of a whitish yellow transparent color. 

3d. When numbers of the worms which were fastened to the in- 
side of the edges of the wickers, and straightened, now get upon the 
edges, and move slowly along, instinct urging them to seek change of 
place. 

. 4th. When numbers of worms leave the centre of the wickers and 
uy to reach the edges, and crawl up upon them. 

5th. When their rings draw in, and their greenish color changes to 
a deep golden hue. 

6th. When their skins become wrinkled about the neck, and their 
bodies have more softness to the touch than heretofore, and feel like 
soft dough. 

* The American cultivator must attend to this caution. The worms should be fed 
four or five times a day at this time, and no more leaves g-iven them than they can 
eat. If too many leaves are g-iven, they will dunjf on them, and, besides, increase 
the trouble of cleaning the hui-dle." 
13 



[ 175 ] 98 

7th. When, in taking a silkworm in the hand, and looking through' 
it, the whole body has assumed the transparency of a ripe yellow plum. 
When these signs appear in any of the insects, every thing should be 
prepared for their rising, that those worms which are ready to rise' 
may not lose their strength and silk in seeking for the support they 
require. 

First preparation for forming the Hedge or Espalier. 

A week or ten days before the worms are ready to mount, bundles 
of twigs of chsstnut, hickory, oak, or of the birch of which stable 
brooms are made, must be procured and prepared. 

These should be arranged into bunches^ that the worms may easily 
climb up them, and fix themselves conveniently to pour out their first 
downy silk, and then work their cocoons. These bushes should be 
neither too thick set nor too bare. As soon as it is observed that the 
worms want to rise, the faggots should be put up against the inside wall,, 
above the wicker trays, on the most convenient side, leaving fifteen 
inches between each bundle. 

The twigs or top branches of the bundles should touch the lower 
part of the tray above that on which they are placed, and, by being beAt 
down by th€ tray above, form a species of arch, upon which we must 
observe? 

Ist. That the bundles should be placed a little aslant, so that the 
worms that climb up may not drop off. 

2d. That they should be longer than the height between the floor 
and the wicker hurdles, or than the height between the lower wicker 
and that above; thus they form a curve when placed between them, and 
in this manner the worms that rise upon the curving part, do not soil 
the worms that are climbing perpendicularly under them, when they 
evacuate, which would be the case were the arch not made. 

3d. That the branches should be spread out like fans, that the air 
may penetrate through all parts, and the worms may work with ease. 
When the worms are too near each other they do not work so well, 
and forni double cocoons, which are only worth half single cocoons. 
This inattention, which is almost universal, causes great loss every 
year, which is little known, except by the manufacturers who spin 
the silk, who are obliged to- separate the double cocoons from the 
single — the silk bein^'^ of an inferior quality. 

The bundles should be fixed into the wieker work of the hurdles 
and not into the paper, which requires only to lift the paper at the 
edge of the wicker, to put in the ends of the faggots through the 
wicker, so as to let them touch the edges. This arrangement is also 
convenient for the cleaning of the hurdles, which must soon occur. 

Mr. Stephenson directs that openings should be left at the tops of 
the curves, because the worms always make choice of them to form 
their cocoons. Another advantage arises from these openings, viz: that 
the cabins will contain a greater number of worms than when these 
Vacancies are small. The ver}^ small tender shoots must also be cut 
off, as they are not able to carry the weight of a worm, and might 



99 [ 175 3 

.occasion the loss of many of them by their tumbling off. The low- 
est shelf should project three inches on each side, be)^ond the one 
next above it, and the same difference must be made in all the 
other shelves progressively upwards, in order to receive the worms 
which may fall from the shelf above. These projections should be 
covered with brush, to break their fall: for the same reason brush 
should be placed on the bottoms and entrances of the cabins, to afford 
places for the worms to form cocoons, in case they should be stunned 
hy falling, and disabled from again mounting on the branches. 

Having thus placed upon each hurdle, and in their angles a sufficient 
number of spreading bundles, the first worms that are ready easily 
find their way up. If, in the course of this day, (which requires the 
very utmost care,) in watching the hurdles, some worms should be 
perceived rea^y to rise, they must be taken up and put near the ends 
of the bushes.. There should be also some dry twigs of oak, or other 
wood, put upon the wickers, and when the worms rise on them, they 
may be lifted and put close to the bushes, which will save the trouble 
of constantly looking for the worms that are ready to rise. 

It must be observed, however, on this subject, that, during the first 
three or four hours on which the silkworms give signs of rising, it is 
not necessary to be in a hurry to make them climb up; for, by re- 
maining some hours on the hurdles, they have time to cleanse them- 
selves by evacuation upon the litter. 

Whatever may be the method followed in the course of this period, 
it is always desirable that the little bundles of twigs should be well 
placed, well arched, clean and light, and not thick; that, as before said, 
the air may circulate freely, and t|iat the worms may work with ease 
in themo* 

Last feed to he given to the Silkworms. 

The 240 pounds of sorted leaves which are still in reserve, shoulcj 
be given by degrees, and according to their wants. The little appe^ 
tite of the silkworms, and their wish to rise upon the leaves, prove 
that, even were they given more food at one time, it would only add to 
the litter which would become dirty, because this is the period at which 
they evacuate most. From this it is better rather to stint them in 
each distribution. 

The hours of feeding cannot be fixed in this last day; it cannot 
even be known, whether there may not be required a small quantity of 
leaves for the following day. 

Cleaning of the hurdles; end of the preparatiorts for the rising of 

the Silkivoinns. 

As soon as the worms are prepared to rise, the hurdles should be 

* Instead of bushes, Messrs. Terhovcn, of Pbiladelpliia co-;nty, use fi-ames for the 
worms to form their cocoons in. Sec plate 2d, fig. 4, and the explanation of tljeui. 



[ 175 ] 100 

cleaned thoroughly. This operation, although tedious, is easy enougk^ 
with the aid of the portable trays. 

These portable trays cannot now be put on the hurdles, because the 
cabins placed round them prevent it; however, they may be support- 
ed against the trays, so as to be able to use them within. When they 
are placed near the trays, the ripe worms must be carefully put upon 
them . Two or three portable trays should be filled. This done, the 
litter should be emptied from the sheets of paper into baskets. 

When one portion of the hurdles has been cleaned, the paper is to 
be replaced, and the worms gently slided down upon it by slanting 
the tray. Upon a small scale, the fully ripe worms may be picked one 
by one, and placed on the cabins, when they will immediately mount. 
Mr. Stephenson directs to place them at first in the middle of the ca- 
bin ; if the sides are begun with, or the outer ends of the cabins, it 
will be difficult to supply the middle with worms, without disturbing, 
and even destroying some of those which are mounting on the sides, in 
reaching in with the hand towards the middle. 

They should, strictly, only be given the quantity of food they may 
want, and that very sparingly. When the baskets are filled with 
litter, they must be directly carried out of the laboratory. In this 
manner, several persons may clean the hurdles in a few hours. The 
silkworms, when put on the portable trays, should be handled with 
the greatest gentleness and ease, leaving them on the twigs or bits 
of leaves to which they are fastened, not to hurt them in tearing 
them off. The slightest injury, at this age, is particularly hurtful to 
them, because the vital action is much diminished. 
. In sliding the silkworms upon the hurdles, they should be placed 
in squares of about two feet, beginning on the side upon which the es- 
palier or hedge, is already placed, and forming the squares close to 
them, so that the silkworm may find no difficulty in rising: a distance 
of eight or ten inches must be left between the squares. 

In the centre of these squares should be fixed bunches of small dry 
boughs. Thi3 operation may be performed by eight persons in eight 
hours. 

During the time of this operation, the exterior air should be freely 
admitted on all sides, and may be drawn in by lighting a blazing light 
fire in the chimneys. 

All the ventilators should be open, as well as the doors and win- 
dows, if there be no wind, and if the weather be not much below the 
jQSth degree of temperature, which is the prescribed heat of the labor 
ratory. Although, generally, the air at this time of the year is nei- 
ther cold nor windy enough to be obliged to shut up the laboratory, it 
becomes necessary to take great precaution in admitting air. In such 
cases, a part only of the ventilators should be opened at once. The 
fumigating bottle should also be passed once or twice through the la- 
boratory, and the hygrometer will show whether the air is grown i^uf- 
ficiently dry. 

During this time the worms continue to rise and climb, and thus 
it is indispensable to finish the hedge, and to fill the hurdles with rows 



101 [ 175 2 

0i cabins. The first row of inside bundles of twigs should be placed 
at six or eight inches distance from one another, to form the hedge; 
other small bushes must be stuck in between them, and form a species 
of vaulted roof under the higher hurdle; it should not be too thick; 
the small bushes may be stuck into the lower hurdle without taking 
off the paper. Across the middle of the hurdle, and between the 
squares into which the silkworms have been laid, should be stuck four 
twigs in a bunch, and spread out like a fan, to admit the air, and that 
the silkworms may be able to rise and climb into every part of them 
to make their cocoons. When the hedge is formed round three sides 
of the wicker hurdles, and the groups or bunches of twigs are placed 
in the centre of them, the worms should, with great care, be put 
nearer the hedge, that they may climb with ease. The cabins should 
be about two feet from one another, and will hold a great quantity of 
silkworms. 

As soon as the hedge and bunches are nearly laden with worms, other 
small twigs should be put between the hedge and bunches, and be- 
tween those bunches and the outside edge of the wicker trays. Thus 
are formed parallel hedges across the wicker trays, at two feet distance, 
and as all the top branches wave and bend under the wicker trays 
above, or the ceiling, the whole presents an appearance of small 
avenues covered in at top, and shut in at the end of the hedge, and 
are called '^ cabanes,^' or huts. 

This arrangement of cabins will generally suffice to receive all 
the silkworms of a wicker hurdle: should there, however, remain 
some silkworms on the tray when the cabins are nearly laden, a 
small branch may be put against them, and thus prevent their lying 
too thick together on the hedges. If care has been taken to provide 
long sweeping twigs, well curved at the top, and well spread out, that 
the air may pass through them, the number mentioned will be found 
quite sufficient to answer all purposes, and the silkworms will, with 
ease, work well, not huddle together, and will not touch one another, 
and not produce double instead of single cocoons. 

Two essential things should always be attended to. The first is, to 
put those worms near the cabins which are perceived to be ready to 
rise; and the second is, to give a few leaves to those worms that are 
still inclined to eat. One or two careful persons should be thus occu- 
pied. 

As long as the worms feel a wish to eat, were it only one mouthful, 
they will not think of their cocoon, and it will happen, that, after climb- 
ing, and even evacuating themselves, they sometimes go down again 
for more food; they will also sometimes stop when descending, and 
remain with their heads downward — the wish to eat having ceased bo- 
fore they reached the bottom; they should then be turned, so that 
their heads may be put upwards, as the down position is injurious to 
them. 

These attentions which appear too frivolous, often contribute, how- 
ever, to an abundant crop of the best cocoons, with few double onas. 



[ 175 ] lOS? 

Separation of the Silkivorms which will not rise: cleaning the 
wicker hurdles for the last time. 

Four-and-twenty or thirty hours after the worms have first begun to 
rise, and when four-fifths have risen, there remain on the wickers 
those that are weak and lazy, which do not eat, do not seem of the dis- 
position of those that have risen, but remain motionless on the leaves, 
without giving any sign of rising. These should be taken away, and 
put either in the small laboratory, or in any dry clean room of at least 
73^ of heat, where there are hurdles covered with dry clean paper, and 
the hedge ready prepared for them. 

As sopn as they are thus placed, some will rise directly; others will 
eat and then rise, and so on till all will have risen. These worms will 
have acquired the vigor and stimulus they wanted, by being put in a 
warmer and much drier apartment. 

The great mass of silkworms in the large laboratory^ in evacuating 
themselves, often soil one another, which will destroy their vigor, and 
indispose them to rise; the best remedy is to remove them at once to a 
dry and tolerably warm place. 

Should these worms be very numerous, not only should there be 
the hedge round the hurdles, but also the clump and hedge across, that 
they may have every facility for rising ofTered to them. 

If only apart of these worms appear inclined to rise, they shbuld be 
covered with some leaves and some twigs put ovef them, that, when 
they climb upon these, they may be taken in the hand, and put upon 
the cabins, as thev are then ready to rise. 

With this assistance, the lazy worms will distribute themselves in 
the branches, evacuate, and begin weaving cocoons. 
i Before these few worms are put on the cabins, we may form a sort 
,of support or couch of wheat or rye straw for them among the branches, 
to prevent their dropping off, and to give them time to fasten them- 
selves to the branches. In this manner have been attained cocoons 
from almost every silkworm. 

AH the silkworms being off the hurdles, having either risen or been 
.carried away, no time should be lost in cleaning the hurdles, which 
must be done with the greatest expedition. 

Care of the Laboratory until the Silkworm has completed its 

fifth age. 

1st When the worms manifest a desire to rise, infinite care should 
be taken to prevent the temperature of the laboratory from falling: [or 
risino-:") it should be maintained between 68° and 71° by means of the 
ventilators in the ceiling and floor, which must be opened more op 
less, according to circumstances; and the air may be circulated from 
the contiguous apartments, by opening the dox>rs into them. 

It is proved that any violent agitation of air cramps the worms, 
stunts them, causes them to drop off, aild suspend the work they had 



begun. 



4 



lOS [ 175 ] 

2d. When the worms are near rising, the air should be kept as dry 
is possible, that the paper on the wicker may dry when it is wet with 
the moisure of the evacuations; and that the vapor which exhales from 
the body of the insect, may be absorbed and carried off: the quantit}- 
of this is very considerable. 

3d. Should any of the worms drop off that had risen, they should 
be taken up, and carried into the apartment where the other later worms 
were put, to prevent the late worms from weaving in the large labora- 
tory, when the early ones have finished their cocoons. 

4th. When the silkworm has cast out the down which precedes 
the silk, and it has just begun to wind its cocoon, as the air does not 
then directly strike upon them, the air may be freely admitted now 
and then. 

5th. When the cocoon has acquired a certain eonsistency, the labora- 
tory may be left quite open, without fearing the variations of the at- 
mosphere. The tissue of the cocoon is so close,- that the agitation of 
the air, far from being detrimental to the silkworms, agrees witli them^ 
even if it should be colder than the temperature fixes for the labora- 
tory. 

Mr. Stephenson directs that all diseased and dead worms should be 
removed immediately, as the first will infect the healthy worms, and 
the last, by causing a bad smell, would annoy those which are at work 
in making their cocoons. 

Although it may seem needless to those who inhabit warm climates.- 
that such minute details should have been gone into, yet, as in an ele- 
mentary work,' rules should be laid down applicable to all cases and to 
all places, in the art of which it treats — the endeavor has been made to 
Speak of every circumstance that might occur, and to provide for it 
All the care hitherto recommended, has tended — 

1st. To preserve the silk, contained in the reservoirs of the silk- 
worms, in a constantly fluid state. 

2d. To keep the skin or surface of the silkworm sufficiently dry^ 
and constantly in the degree of contraction necessary, and without? 
^hich the silkworm would perish". 

3d. To prevent the air from ever being corrupt, and which migh* 
make the silkworm ill, or suffocate it, at those very periods when it 
most needs its highest vigor to pour out all the silk it contains. 

If these rules are not observed with exactitude, there is danger of 
the accidents occurring which it may be useful here to state. 

1st. Too cold or agitated an air, introduced into the laboratory, may 
instantly harden, more or less, the silky substance of those worms on 
which it may blow. This substance thus not being fit to pass through 
the silk-spinning tubes, the insect is soon obliged to cease drawing 
out its cocoon, and suffers. Then will many of those worms that are 
not sufficiently wrapt in the silk, be liable to drop off at any moment, 
and lessen the abundance of cocoons. 

2d. Too damp an atmosphere, preventing the contraction of the 
skin of the worms, which enables it to evacuate itself, and to exude 
the silk through the silk-drawing tubes, causes them to suffer, weaken* 



[ 175 ] 104 

them, slackens their work, and gives them numerous disorders, which 
cannot easily be defined. 

3d. An atmosphere vitiated by the fermentation of leaves and dirt,, 
or by the later worms that lie on the litter, as well as by the defect of 
circulation in the interior air, which renders the breathing of these in- 
sects difficult, relaxes their organs, and also causes various diseases 
among them. In such cases, many worms drop off, others form bad 
cocoons, die within them when they are finished, and are spoiled. 

4th. A case of very rare occurrence here, but which must be noted 
to complete the views on this subject, is, too warm and dry an atmos- 
phere, which dries up the worms, producing too violent a contraction 
©f the skin, not proportioned to the vacuum which increases in the 
animal by the slow pouring out of the silky substance, and by trans- 
piration; and thus forces them to violent and fatiguing action in the 
formation of the cocoon; in which case they employ the reservoirs of 
silk too fast, forcing the silk-drawing tubes, producing coarser silk, 
which thus never can have that fineness which it possesses when pro- 
duced in a temperature of 69°. Having tried to expose a number of 
silkworms to very dry air, at 100 degrees of temperature, several 
thousand feet of the coarse downy flos, or have, were obtained from 
the cocoons by the common method of spinning*, the weight of this 
flos being six times greater than the flos obtained from cocoons form- 
ed in a temperature of 69°. 

This observation may explain why the silk produced in very hot 
climates is stronger and less fine than that produced in temperate re- 
gions, where the silkworms are reared at a lower degree of tempera- 
ture,* 

The fifth age is accomplished, when the silkworm pours out its silk 
and forms the cocoon. 

The fifth age is perfected, when, on touching the cocoon, it appears 
to have obtained a certain consistency. The silkworm has then cast 
its envelope, is changed into the chrysalis, and has entered its sixth 
age. 

Qxiantity of vapor and excremental substance emitted by Silk- 
worms, from the time they reach their full growth^until the form- 
ation of the cocoon. 

The calculation resulting from facts, will here be offered, by which 
may be ascertained the quantity of substance which issues from the 
silkworm towards the close of the fifth age, that this calculation may 
show the evils which are constantly likely to attack a laboratory. 

* The above remark applies to the East India silk, the inferiority of which will be 
noticed hereafter, in an extract from the Minutes of the Evidence taken before a Com- 
mittee of the British Parliament on the Silk Trade. 

Count Dandolo has omitted a very important caution, which it is essential to attend 
to when the worms begin to spin their cocoons. It is to preserve the utmost silence 
in the apartment, as the worms are very sensible to the least noise, and, if disturbed, 
will for a moment, cease to spin. Thus the continuity of the thread will be interrupt- 
ed, and the viluc of tlij:- cocoon greaOy diminished. 



105 [ i75 ] 

In the space of six or seven days, the bodies of the insects requisite 
to produce only 600 pounds of cocoons, must have lost 700 pounds 
weight of vapor, or gas, solid and liquid excremental substance. 
This astonishing quantity of substance, execrated from the bodies of 
the silkworms in so short a time, is of greater weight than the total 
weight of the cocoons and chrysalis, which only weigh 600 pounds, 
It is scarcely credible that the bodies of the silkworms should yield 
so much noxious matter in a few days, were it not demonstrated by 
positive facts. 

This large body of exhalation, v/ere it stagnant in the laboratory, 
might, in the later days, generate disorders quickly, and cause great 
mortality at the very moment when the abundant crop of the cocoons 
was most confidently expected. We must, therefore, feel the deep ne- 
cessity of attentively following the prescribed directions for avoiding 
this evil. 



CHAPTER XI. 

OF THE SIXTH AGE OF THE SILKWORMS, OR OF THE CHRYSALISJ 
GATHERING- AND PRESERVATION OF THE COCOON. 

The sixth age begins in the chrysalis state, and ends when the moths 
appear, having left their shell in the cocoon that covered them. 
The following are the necessary things that remain to be done: 

1. To gather the cocoons. 

2. To choose the cocoons which are to be preserved for the eggs or 
seed. 

3. Preservation of cocoons until the appearance of the moth; we 
shall then treat of 

4. The daily loss of weight which the cocoons suffer from the time 
they are finished until the appearance of the moth, 

1 . Gathering of the cocoons. 

Strong, healthy, and well managed silkworms, will complete their 
cocoons in three days and a half at farthest, reckoning from the mo- 
ment when they first begin casting the flos. This period will be 
shorter if the silkworms spin the silk in a higher temperature than 
that which has been indicated, and in very dry air. 

It is also more or less prolonged, if the silkworms are not well and 
healthy, or if they are exposed to a colder temperature than has been 
fixed: if they are exposed to transitions of heat and cold, to damp 
and vitiated air, or to draughts of wind, before the cocoon is sufficiently 
advanced to shelter them entirely; and, in short, if a great number of 
silkworms rise long after the first have risen, which is always the con- 
sequence of bad management and want of care. 

14 



[ 175 ] lOt) 

To avoid the losses which any slight inattention may have occasion- 
ed, it will be better not to take off the cocoons before the eighth or ninth 
da)^, reckoning from the time when the silkworms first rose. They 
may be taken off on the seventh, if the laboratories have been conduct- 
ed with such regularity that the time may be known with certainty 
when this may be done. 

Begin on the lower tier of hurdles, and take the cabins down gent- 
ly, giving them to those who are to gather the cocoons. Place a bas- 
ket between two of the gntherers, to receive the cocoons; another per- 
son should receive the stripped bushes, which may be laid by for an- 
other year. All the cocoons that want a certain consistency, and feel 
soft, should be laid aside, that they may not be mixed with better. 
Empty the baskets upon hurdles or trays, plticed in rows, pnd spread 
the cocoons about four fingers deep, or nearly to the top of the wicker 
ti'ay. When the cocoons are detached, the down or flos, in which the 
silkworms have formed the cocoon, should be taken off. If the co- 
coons are for sale, weigh them, and send them to the purchaser. The 
baskets, the floor, and all things used, should be cleaned. 

Pullein directs, wdicn githering the cocoons, to make four assort- 
ments. 1. Those designed for breed. 2. The dupions, 3. The firm- 
est of those which are to be reeled. 4. Those of a looser texture, 

2. Choosing the cocoons for the production of eggs. 

About two ounces of eggs may be saved out of one pound and a 
l|alf of male and female cocoons. 

The small cocoons, of a straw color, with hard ends and fme webs, 
and which arp a little depressed in the middle, as if tightened \)y a ring 
or circle, are to be preferred. There are no certain signs to distinguish 
the male from the female cocoons: the best known are the following; " 

The small cocoons; sharper at one or both ends, and depressed in 
the middle, generally produce the male; the round full cocoon, with- 
out ring or depression in the middle, usually contains the female;. 
These, according to Pullein, may be distinguished from the dupions 
by the extra size, the clumsy shape, lather round than oval, of the 
latter. As, however, all marks may fail, an extra number may be 
kept of the best of those wiiich are spun double, and when the moths 
come out, the males and females being easily distinguished, an addi- 
tion can be made from them to the. defective side. 

By shaking the cocoon close to the ear, we may generally ascertaiji 
whether the chrysalis be alive. If it be dead, and loosened from the 
cocoon, it yields a sharp sound; when dead, it yields a dumb muffled 
sound, and is more confined in the cocoon.* 

Sauvage says, that the du})ions, or double cocoons, constantly pro- 
duce a moth of each sex; and, on this account, advises them to be se- 
lected for seed; but if is a mistake to suppose that this equality in thq 
sexes of the dupions takes place, for Mr. Nysten found, that of 20 dou- 
]3le cocoons which he examined, seven contained two males; six, two 
ipmales; and seven, one male and one female, t 

* Cours fl'Agricnlture, vol. 9, p. 599. 

f Reclicrches sur des Vers a Soie, p. 168,. 



107 [ 175 ] 

3. Preservation of cocoons intended for seed. 

Experience shows that where the temperature of the room is above 
73°, the transition of the chrysalis to the moth state, would be too ra- 
pid, and the coupling will not be productive. If below GC^, the deve- 
lopment of the moth is tardy, which is also injurious. Damp air will 
change it into a weak and sickly moth. The apartment should, there- 
fore, be kept in an even dry temperature, between 66^ and 73°. 
When collected, spread the cocoons on a dry floor, or on tables, and 
strip them clean of down or flos, to prevent the feet of the moth being 
entangled in it when coming out: while cleaning them, all those that 
appear to have any defect should be laid aside: this is the time, also, 
to separate the male and female cocoons, as far as we can distinguish 
them. 

Mr. Stephenson directs the selection of an equal number of males 
and females, and to keep the cocoons of the same day's mounting se- 
parate, that the moths may pierce them at the same time. If the good 
cocoons, taken from the whole parcel, are all first mixed, and the 
selection for those intended for breedino; be made from this general 
heap, many will be set aside, which were formed by worms that had 
mounted upon different days, and which will be pierced by the moths 
unequally, and hence there w ill not be an equal number of males and 
females produced at the same time. This irregular appearance may 
cause the loss of a great many moths or of several thousand eggs. 
Pullein orders the choice to be made from those shelves, or arbors in 
which the worms spun the earliest. But it is questionable, whether 
the circumstance of early spinning, would affect the worm next season, 
unless the temperature of the apartment in both seasons was equal. 
Dandolo says, that the strength shown by a worm in forming a cocoon, 
has no influence upon the fecundity of the male, nor upon the quality 
of the eggs. Cocoons of various tenuity and shapes, have equally af- 
forded him large quantities of well-impregnated eggs. Healthy worms, 
of equal weights, have given cocoons which varied in weight. 

When the selection has been made, the sorted cocoons must be put on 
tables, in layers of about two inches, allowing the air to pass freely 
through them, that it may not be necessary to stir them frequently; 
but it is beneficial to stir them round once a day if the air be moist- 
When the seed cocoons are not very numerous, they may be strung 
upon threads and hung against a wall, or suspended from a beam. 
Just so much of the middle of the cocoon is to be pierced with a nee- 
dle as is sufficient to attach it to the thread. The middle is chosen, 
because it Cannot be ascertained at which q,\\(\ the moth will pierce the 
cocoon. Place a male and female, alternately, upon the thread, that 
they may be near each other when they come out. "^ 

If the heat of the apartment is above 73°, every method of dimin- 
ing the heat should be tried; such as keeping all ajxMlurcs to the sun- 
ny sides carefully closed, to cause thorough (li-aught'=; of air to dry the 

* Stenhrnsnn 



[ 175 ] lOS 

humidity that exhales from the chrysalides. Should the temperature 
rise to 78° or 82°, the cocoons must be put into a cooler place, as a dry 
cellar. 

4. Daily loss in weight of cocoons^ from the time of their forma- 
tion till the moth escapes froin them* 

It is a common opinion that the weight of the cacoon, after diminish- 
ing, increases for a certain period. This old error induces persons 
to give their cocoons too soon to the spinner, before they lose their 
weight, or too late, when they keep them back, in hope tliey will soon 
recover weight The following is the result of the decrease of 1,000 
cocoons, in a temperature of between 71° and 73°. 

Gathered from the cabins and cleaned, the cocoons 

weighed - - 1,000 ounces. 

First day following - - - - - 991 

Tenth day -■--"-- - 925 

The decrease in weight was gradual, but not regular. The cocoons 
lose, in ten days, seven and a half per cent, by the drying of the 
chrysalis alone. The four first days, they lose three per cent, in the 
the last days, they lose rather more. 

It is a loss for the purchasers of cocoons to receive those that are 
of different ages, because, when in some cocoons the moth is prepar- 
ing to come forth, and other cocoons are not so forward, the spinners 
are at a loss whether to let it come directly, or to kill the chrysalis to 
preserve the cocoon.* If the rules which have been recommended 
are exactly followed, this loss will be avoided, and the cocoons will 
be perfectly formed, and ready to be reeled off at the end of seven 
days, reckoning from the day they first rose upon the bushes or frames. 

Great care must be taken to preserve cocoons from ants, which will 
destroy them as certainly as they do the silkworm. 



CHAPTER XII. 



SEVENTH AGE OF THE SILKWORM. 

Birth and coupling of the moth; of laying the eggs, and the preser- 
vation of the eggs. 

This seventh and the last age of the silkworm, comprises the entire 
life of the moth. 

*In making a contract, therefore, in the early part of the season for cocoons, the 
cultivator should attend to the above points. 



109 C 175 ] 

The formation of the moth, and its disposition to issue from the 
cocoon, may be ascertained, when one of its extremities is perceived 
to be wet, which is the part occupied by the head of the moth. A 
few hours after, and sometimes in one hour after, the moth will pierce 
the cocoon and come out. Occasionally, the cocoon is so hard, and 
so wound in silk, that the moth in vain strives to come forth, and dies 
in the cocoon. Sometimes the female deposites some eggs in the co- 
coon before she can get out, and often perishes in it. This circum- 
stance has induced some to extract the chrysalis, from the cocoon by 
cutting it, that the moth may only have to pierce its thin envelope. 
But Dandoio disapproves of the practice, (although he has performed 
the operation with success,) because it is tedious; and should the moths 
be put on a plain surface, five in a hundred will not be able to get out, 
but will drag the envelope along, and at last die, not being able to disen- 
cumber themselves. If the surface be not smooth, the moths will is- 
sue with greater ease. It is very favorable to the moths when they put 
forth their head and first legs, to find some substance to which they 
may fasten, and thus facilitate clearing out of the cocoon by the sup- 
port; for this reason they should be spread out very thin on tables, 
covered With a muslin or linen cloth. The life of the moth lasts, in 
Italy, ten, eleven, or twelve days, according to the strength of its con- 
stitution, and the mildness of the atmosphere. With Mr. Dusar, of 
Philadelphia, the moths lived from five to eight days. A hot tempe- 
rature accelerates their operations, and the drying which precedes their 
death. 

Hatching of the moths ^ and their preservation. 

Cocoons, kept in a temperature of QQ°, begin to be hatched after 
fifteen days; those kept in a heat between 71°, and 73°, begin to come 
forth after eleven or twelve days. The room in which the moths are 
produced should be dark, or at least there should be only sufficient 
light to distinguish objects. This is an important rule, and must be 
carefully attended to. The moths do not come fortli in great numbers 
the first or the second day: they are chiefly hatched on the fourth, 
fifth, sixth, and seventh days, according to the degree of heat of the 
place in which the cocoons are kept. The hours when the moths burst 
the cocoons in greatest number, are the three and four hours after sun- 
rise, if the temperature be from 64° to QQ°. The male moths, the very 
moment they come out, go eagerly in quest of the female: when they 
are united, they must be placed on trays covered with linen, and made 
in such a manner as to allow it to be changed whgn soiled. Mucli 
care must be taken in raising the united moths. They must be held 
by the wings, in order not to separate them: if this happens, they niUv^t 
be replaced on the tables of the moths of their own sex. When one 
small table is filled with moths in a state of union, they arc to be carried 
into a small room, sufficiently airy and fresh, and whicli can be made, 
very dark. Having employed the first hours of the day in selecting and 
carrying the united moths, the males and feinalcs which are found se- 



[ 175 3 110 

parate on the tables, arc to be brought into contact, put on otirer frames 
and carried into a dark room. It is easy to ascertain if there are mor;i 
females than mal(i!s. The body of the female is nearly double the size 
of that of the male; besidiis, the male which is single, beats about its 
wings at the least approach of light. The hour must be noted, at vvhicK 
the tables containing the united moths were placed in the dark room. 
If, after this Operation is over, there still remain some moths of each 
sex, they are to be placed in the small perforated box, plate 1, fig. 4, 
until the moment fav^orable for their union arrives. From time to 
time they must be looked at, to see if they separate, in order that they 
may be brought anew into contact. When any thing is to be done in 
the dark chamber, as little light as possible must be admitted, only suf- 
ficient to distinguish objects. The more light there is, the more 
the moths are disturbed and troubled in their operations, as light 
is too stimulating for them. • The boxes are very convenient to keep 
quiet the males which remain, and thus prevent the fine powder ad- 
hering to their wings from flying about,' and the destruction of their 
wings, and consequently, the loss of their vital power. The cocoons 
must be removed as fast as they are pierced by the moth; for being 
moist, they communicate their humidity to those which are still en- 
tire. The paper, also, on the trays, when soiled, is to be removed, 
and fresh supplied. Constant attention is required during the whole 
day, as there is a succc'=^'sion in the process of hatching and union of 
the moths, which occasionally vary in relative proportion to one an- 
other. Instead of a frame, paper may be used for the purpose of re- 
ceiving the eggs. A few good cocoons will not produce a moth, ow- 
ing to their hardness, which prevents the moth from making a hole by 
<Jvhich to come forth. 

2. Separation of the mothj and laying the eggs. 

If there be an excess of moles, they must be thrown away ; if of 
females, males must be allotted to them, which have already been in a 
state of union. . Great care must be taken, when the couples are sepa- 
rated, not to injure the males. The m.ale ought not to remain united 
more than six hours. After the lapse of that time, take the moth by 
the wings and the body, and separate them gently. All the males 
which are no longer in union must be placed upon the frames; the 
most vigorous are afterwards selected, and united with those females 
which have not yet had a mate. Other vigorous males must be pre- 
served in a separate box, and kept in darkness. When there is likely 
to be a want of males, let them remain united to the female, the first 
time only five hours instead of six. The females are not injured by 
waiting for the male, even many hours; the only loss sustained is that 
of some eggs which are not impregnated. Six hours, as just said, is the 
usual time for the moths to remain united; for, in that time, the eggs of 
the female will be fully impregnated. It is also tlie general practice not 
to use the male for another female; but Mr. Delonchamps, already 
quoted, assures us that, in the event of having more female than malo 



Ill [ 175 ] 

moths, the latter may be again used to profit. In the 5-ear 1S24, he raised 
many worms from eggs the produce of a sixth couph'ng, which were 
fully equal to those produced from eggs at the first. The union conti- 
nued never less than from twenty to twenty-four hours. The male 
after a sixth union, appeared as lively and as brisk as at first, but he 
had no more females. The eggs from even a thirteenth union of the 
same male with different females, had all the characters of those of the 
best quality. In these cases the disunion of the pair was, m.orcover, 
never spontaneous, but alwa3'S required to be effected by the hands.* 
Before separating the sexes, prepare, in a cool, dry, airy chamber, 
the linen on which the moth is to deposite its eggs. The following is 
the manner in which the cloth must be arranged: 

At the bottom of the tressel, plate 1, fig. 5, which must be about 
four feet seven inches high, and three feet eight inches long, place, ho- 
rizontally, on each side of the length, two boards, so arranged that 
one of their sides should be nailed to the tressel, about five inches and 
.1 half high above the ground, and that the other side of the ])oard shall 
be a little higher, and project outwards, Upon the tressel lay a cloth, 
so that it may hang equally on each side. The ends of the cloth must 
cover the boards below. The m.ore perpendicular the lateral parts of 
the tressel are, the less soiled will be the cloth, by the evacuation of 
the liquid that comxcs from the moths. The moths u'hich have been 
united six hours, are then to be gently separated, the females placed 
on the frame, and carried to the tressel and placed on the cloth, one 
over another, beginning at the top, and going downwards. Note the 
time at which the moths are placed on the cloth, taking care to keep 
those which are placed afterwards separate, to avoid confasion. 'j'he 
females that have had a virgin mate must be treated in the same man- 
ner as those which have been united with one that had been coupled 
previously five hours. The females should be left on the cloth .36 or 
40 hours, without being touched. At this time, if it be observed that 
the linen has not been well stocked with eggs, other females must be 
placed on it, in order that the eggs may be equally distributed. When 
the heat of the room is IV or T^^, or when at G3^ or i^S'^, the eggs will 
be yellow, that is, unimpregnatcd, or of a reddish color, that is, im- 
perfectly impregnated, and will not produce worms. The temperature 
of the room must therefore be kept betvv'een these extremes. Somc- 
limes a female moth will escape from its mate before impregnation, 
and produce many useless cg2;s. Mr. Swayne remarks, '^ that he had 
a cocoon of an orange color given to him, the moth of which happen- 
ed to be a female. From this, by ."ouplinp^ with a straw-colored mate, 
were propagated all that he had of an orange? color. Hence he con- 
(jjludes, that the color of the silk depends chicfl}' upon the female. ''t 

* Es^ai sur L'Histoire, ?cc. p, G9. Should others h.avr tb.e same success as this au- 
thor, many cocoons containing- mules which are j)rescrvctl for sccfl, may be tiscd for 
winding-, and comparative!)' a smaller number than females be kept for coupling-. He 
thinks that one-sixteenth part of males, in a parcel of cocoon?, would be sufiicient- 
The experiment Ct\' repeated unions should bo made, 

■{■ Trans, Soc Arts, London, vol. 7, p. 144. 



[ 175 ] il^ 

If this should be found a fact, we may have a rule whereby to avoid 
the orange-colored breed, which are not approved of, by choosing for 
.e«"gs those female cocoons which are of a straw or white hue. The 
female cocoons, as before noted, are generally larger than the males, 
and not so much pointed as they are, and are without the ring or de- 
pression in the middle, which commonly distinguishes the cocoons 
containing the latter. 

Eight or ten days after the deposition of the eggs, the jonquil color 
peculiar to them, will change to a reddish gray, and afterwards into a 
pale clav hue. They are of a lenticular form, and on both surfaces 
there is a slight depression. 

3. Preservation of the eggs. 

Collect the eggs which have fallen on the cloth covering the shelves 
of the tressel, and put them in a box, in layers not more than half the 
breadth of the finger. The cloths raised from the tressel when quite 
dry, are to be folded and placed in a dry room, the temperature of 
which does not exceed 65°, nor below the freezing point, 32^. If water 
does not freeze in the room, in a dish, leave the cloths there until 

spring. 

During the summer, the cloths must be examined, to remove in- 
sects. To preserve the cloths always in fresh air, place them on a frame 
of cord, (plate 1, fig. 6,) vv^hich should be attached to the ceiling, and 
inspect them every month. 

There exists a notion that, every two or three years, the eggs should 
be'fchano-ed. It requires little to be said on this egregious error. To 
suppose that the good cocoons of a cultivator, after a few years are no 
longer fit to produce good seed, and yet that these cocoons can give 
o-ood seed for the use of another, would be to admit a superstitious con- 
tradiction, which reason, practice, and science, alike condemn. A 
change of seed can alone be necessary, when, from great neglect for a 
series of years of the worms, a diminutive race has been produced. 
Worms, properly treated, will never degenerate. *'Good keep will 
always produce good worms."* On the subject of the degeneracy of 
silkworms in the United States, the most positive information can be 

given. 

Mr. Samuel Alexander, of Philadelphia, says: *^ From my own ob- 
servation, I am convinced that silkworms, cultivated in Pennsylva- 
nia instead of degenerating, improve; proof of which I possess, in 
comparino- the cocoon of four years since, with those of the last year. 
I can say with truth, the worms hatched from the eggs I brought from 
the South of Europe, have produced annually better silk.^t The tes- 
timony of Mr. Sharrod McCall, of Gadsden county, Florida, is still 
more decisive. A sample of beautiful sewing silk, sent with his com- 

* Mr. Russel Falley, of Ohio: Letter in answer to the silk circular. 
f Letter in reply to ditto. 



113 I 175 2 

inunication to the Secretary of the Treasury, was part of a parcel pro- 
duced by worms, the stock of Which he has had thirty years, and they 
were obtained from a maternal ancestor, who had possessed them 
many years before. During all this long period, no degeneracy has 
been observed. Let proper care be taken of silkworms^ and no de- 
terioration will take place. The time has passed when the idle reve- 
ries of Buffon, Robertson, De Pauw, and others, respecting the ten- 
dency of nature, " to belittle" and degenerate every thing foreign in the 
new world, were received as truths. Facts, proud facts, demonstrate 
not only the gross absurdity of their positions, but the superiority of 
ievery American animal and vegetable, when compared with similar 
productions in the old world. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

GENERAL VIEW" OF ALL THE FACTS STATED IN THIS WORK, IMMEDI- 
ATELY CONNECTED WITH THE ART OF CULTIVATING SILKWORMS. 

In Italy, according to Dandolo, to compose an ounce of eggs of the 
largest breed of silkworms of four casts, it will require 37,440. If 
all these eggs produced a worm, and all the worms should live, about 
373 lbs. of cocoons would be obtained; because 150 cocoons weigh 
about one pound and a half. 

For an ounce of eggs, of common sized worms, 39,168 will be re- 
quired, and will yield 162 lbs. of cOcoons: for about 360 cocoons weigli 
a pound and a half. 

For an ounce of eggs of worms of three casts, it will require 42,200 
eggs, which will yiield 105 lbs. cocoons: for 600 weigh a pound and a 
half. 

From these facts it may be ascertained, by the quantity of cocoons 
obtained, how many eggs have failed, and how many have died of va- 
rious ages; it will afterwards be of use in determining which method 
of rearing the worms is most favorable to their preservation. Thirty- 
nine thousand silkworms, proceeding from one ounce of eggs, can 
cat the first day, and lie easily in a space of about twent}^ inche/5 
square. 

Space occupied by viorms in different ages. 

The worms proceeding from an ounce of eggs, should have a space: 
In the first age, of seven feet four inches square. 
In the second age, of fourteen feet eight inches square. 
In the third age, of thirty-four feet ten inches square. 
In the fourth age, of eighty-two feet six inches square. 
In the fifth age, of one hundred and cighty-tbrco feet four inrhcf* 
square. 



[ 175 ] 114 

It may be regarded as a general rule, that the worms ouglit not to 
touch one another. 

Quantity of leaves consumed by Silkworms in their different ages. 

The result of a most exact calculation is, that the quantity of leaves 
drawn from the tree, employed for each ounce of eggs, amounts to 
1,609 lbs. 8 ounces, divided in the following manner: 

First age, sorted leaves - - - 6 lbs. 

Second age, do - - -18 

Third age, do - - - 60 

Fourth age, do - - - 180 ^ 

Fifth age, do - - 1,098 

Picked leaves - 1,362 



Two hundred and forty pounds eight ounces weight, lost in refuse 
picked from the leaves, and by evaporation, make up the gross weight. 

Facts relative to the cocoons containing the healthy chrysalis: dis- 
eased chrysalides, and dead chrysalides. 

When the cocoons are perfectly formed, they diminish, in the four 
first days, three quarters per cent, each day; the other days, the dinii- 
nution is very trifling. 

Seven and a half pounds of cocoons, containing healthy chrysalides, 
yield eighteen ounces of pure cocoons; which will give eight ounces 
of silk when spun. This proportion of silk to cocoons, may vary ac- 
cording to the ill or good management of the worms. In the unfavor- 
able year 1814, Dandolo obtained fifteen ounces of silk from seven 
and a half pounds cocoons, and thirteen ounces from the same quanti- 
ty of refuse cocoons: we find one pound of coarse flos to nineteen of 
cocoons that can be spun, and four ounces of flos to eleven ounces of 
spun silk. 

About 506 feet of the single thread, or fibre of silk from worms of 
three casts, weigh one grain. 

The cocoon of this vform yields ^-^-^-^^ grains of silk; and, if we 
make an average calculation, we shall extract about 1 1 ounces of silk 
from 3,000 cocoons, weighing Ti pounds. The same cocoon yields 
1,166 feet long of the single fibre. In an ounce of this spun silk will 
be found a length of 291,456 feet. 

The cocoon of the worm of four casts, yields ^^^^ grains of silk, 
because there are about 11 ounces of spun silk drawn from 1800 co- 
coons, weighing 7^ pounds. This cocoon yields 1760 feet of vspuu 
silk; 421 feet 8 inches of silk from a cocoon of a worm of four casts 
weigh a grain: 11 ounces of silk are drawn, on an average, from 750 
cocoons, weighing 71 lbs. This cocoon consequently gives about 
3,885 feet of spun silk; an ounce of this silk is 242,880 feet long. In 
this are not included the first down taken off the cocoon, nor the flos. 



115 [ 175 3 

We may conclude, that the silkworm, in forming this cocoon, draws 
a thread of half a mile in length.* 

It requires 12,S60 cocoons, with healthy chrysalides, to weigh 1000 
ounces. 

Seven pounds and a half of ^^ calcined worms" contain ahout 44 
ounces of pure cocoons. As these cocoons yield about 12 ounces of 
spun silk, out of 21 ounces of pure cocoons, it is evident, that from 
500 ounces of pure cocoons, may be drawn — 

In spun silk, about - - - _ o8| oz. 

Coarse flos - - - - -21^ 

50 

Seven pounds and a half of stained cocoons, containing calcined 
chrysalides, that is, 120 ounces, contain about 50 ounces of pure co- 
coons; but, as in stained cocoons, there is always a part of the sub- 
stance spoilt, the spinner cannot foretel whether from seven pounds and 
a half of cocoons, he will obtain one-half of the quantity that the 
healthy cocoons would yield him; the less the silk, the greater will be 
the proportion of coarse flos, and the flos is worth less than the co- 
coons of the healthy chrysalis; one thousand of these stained cocoons 
weigh a pound and a half. 

Generally, it is not possible to separate the decayed chrysalis from 
the cocoon, the worm being turned into a black soapy substance, 
sticking to the inside of the cocoon, sometimes the mummy is black, 
and sometimes detached. A part of these cocoons may be spun; but 
the silk is never so fine as that from healthy cocoons. Eight himdred 
and sixty of these cocoons weigh a pound and a half. 

Facts relative to the production of eggs. 

Three hundred and sixty cocoons, of the finest quality, weigh about 
25 ounces. If we suppose half of these to be females, these will be 
about 180. Each impregnated moth will lay, on an average, 510 
eggs. This number is equivalent to Ih grains, as QS eggs weigh a 
grain. The 180 female moths, consequently, lay 91,800 eggs, which 
weigh 1,350 grains, or about two ounces and one-third. If the 91,800 
eggs yielded an equal number of silkworms, and if well managed, and 
they each formed a cocoon, we should obtain 382 lbs. 8 ounces of co- 
coons, which the follov/ing year would yield eggs sufficient to produce 
97,537 lbs. 8 ounces.t Bonafous says,| that 14 ounces of cocoons will 
produce, on an average, an ounce of eggs. According to PuUcin, a 
hundred pair of moths will produce about an ounce. 

* In the Abbe Rosier*3 Cours d'Agriculture, it is stated tliat one single lliread. 
forming- a whole cocoon, is three miles \on^. 
t Dandolo. t De L'Education des Vers a Soic: p. 85, 



[ 175 ] 116 

Quantities of silk yielded by various parcels of cocoons. 

Eight pounds of cocoons, (16 oz. to the pound,) of the finest quali- 
ty, produced from 16 to 18 i ounces of silk. 

Eight pounds of the finest quality produced from 16 to ISh ounces 
of raw silk — 6 to 9 cocoons per thread. 

Eleven pounds produced from 19 to 21 5 oz. avoirdupois, from 6 to 
9 cocoons per thread; another parcel, same weight, gave the same 
quantity of silk. 

5!j lbs. of the second quality, produced 109 ounces of raw silk. 

55 lbs. of the first quality, 12'to 16 cocoons, produced 1171 ounces 
avoirdupois, which is about 16 per cent, less than the last parcel. 

15 lbs. green cocoons, best quality, produce - 20$ oz. 

20 lbs. second quality, (not well sorted,) - .. 24 

15 lbs, best green cocoons, produced - - 20| 

10 lbs. second quality, - - - - 13^ 

11 lbs. best cocoons, produced - - _ 44* 

150 ounces (Italian, 28 oz. to the lb.) will yield 11 oz.t the thread 
of from 5 to 6 cocoons. 

12 lbs. cocoons, 3,300, will make 16 ounces of silk, and S ounces of 
flos. :j: 

Mrs. Williams§ obtained nearly one ounce and a half from 244 
cocoons. Miss RhodesJI had, on an average, one ounce from 360 
cocoons, not including flos, and eleven ounces from 4,000 worms. She 
says that Mrs. W. included the flos in her product: had Miss R. 
done so, twenty-five instead of eleven ounces might have been had. 
Thirty thousand produced five pounds avoirdupois. If troy weight 
had been used, 21,600 would only have been required. One thousand 
two hundred and seventy, gave her nearly four ounces of silk. Two 
thousand eight hundred and ninety-three, produced exactly half a 
pound of silk, and somewhat more than a quarter of a pound of waste 
silk, or tow: on an average, 360 cocoons yielded an ounce. Mr. 
Swayne calculates, from the produce of 50 cocoons reared by him, 
that 13,405 would have yielded five pounds of raw silk.^ Twelve 
thousand produced 5 lbs.** 

10 or 11 lbs. (French, 12 oz. to the lb ) are required to make one 
pound of silk thread, called tram, of from 8 to 20 fibres: 13 lbs. mad^ 
one pound of organzine.tt 

15 or 16 lbs. gave one pound of silk. :{::{: 

15 lbs. yielded one pound and a half silk, according to Dandolo. 

■ From Ilabersbam's MS. Journal of the silk culture in Georgia. 

f Trans. Amer. Phil. See. vol. 2, p. 366, 

\ Pidiein, p. 182. § Trans. Soc. Arts, London, vol. 2, p. 154. 

■ !| Trans. Soc. Arts, London, vol. 4, p. 149. 

^ Trans. Soc. Arts, London, vol. 10, p. 181. 

** Trans Soc. Arts, London, vol. 8, p. 16J. The secret of this great production, 
I'or which the cultivator, Bertezcn, an Italian, received the premium offered by the 
Society, was never divulged. 

Y[ Belonch^mps, Essai, &c. ^^.77. t^: Delalauzc, Traite, &c. p. 290. 



I 



117 [ 175 ] 

8 lbs. from well managed worms, gave one pound and a quarter of 
silk* in France. Twelve pounds produced the same quantity of silk, 
in another house. 

5 lbs. gave one pound at Varese. in Italy. t 

10 killogrammes, (22 lbs. Amer.) gave one killogramme of silk — 
(2 lbs. 3 ozs. 5d. avoirdupois.) 

12 killogrammes {26h lbs. Amer.) of cocoons of a good quality, give 
one K. of organzine, of four or five cocoons. Inferior cocoons will re- 
quire 14 K. to produce the same weight. 

For a K. of fine silk, of nine or ten cocoons, 11 K. of fine cocoons, 
and 13 K. of the second quality will be required. 

To make a K. of tram silk, 9 to 11 K. (24:? lbs. Amer.) of cocoons, 
are riequired, according to their quality.:}: 

Mr. Chasel, in the Isle of France, obtained 180 ounces, (French) 
from 55,000 cocoons. 

The estimates of the number of worms to make a pound of silk, are 
as various as the proportions of cocoons to the same quantity of silk. 
The difference in both cases may proceed from the different sizes of 
the worms, and the greater or less care in feeding them. Mr. Storrs, 
of Connecticut, says that 4,000, and Mr. Tufts, of Massachusetts, that 
3,000, are required to make a pound. Mr. Fallcy, of Ohio, estimates 
that 5,000 are requisite, 

Weights of cocoons, — Produce of cocoons, and of silk from an 

ounce of eggs, 

Mr. Stephenson says, that 220 cocoons, tolerably good, weigh a 
pound French. Three thousand cocoons of the worm of three casts, 
weigh Ih pounds French, according to Dandolo. 

In France, from 45 to 50 killogrammes of cocoons, (90 to 100 lbs.) 
are expected from one ounce of eggs, carefully hatched and worms well 
fed and attended. An ounce of eggs consists of about 40,000, half of 
which commonly are lost from sickness in the worms. § 

Two hundred cocoons from worms reared in the early settlement of 
Georgia, weighed one pound. || 

At Washita, 240 cocoons, from worms reared by Judge Bry, weighed 
one pound. IT 

Three thousand three hundred cocoons weighed twelve pounds.** 

In one establishment in France, 262 cocoons, in another 267, in a 
third 271, and in a fourth 328 cocoons, weighed a pound of twelve 
ounces. 

These different results proceeded from diversities in the treatment, tf 

* Stephenson, Trans. Soc. Arts, London, vol. 43. 

j- J. MiiiTay, Treatise on Silkwornns, Edinb. 1826. 

\ Reynaud, p. 140. 

§ Reynaud p. 358. 

11 MS. Journal of the Rev. Mr.'Boltzius of Ebenezcr, vol. 3, p. 855. 

11 Letter hi answer to the silk circular. 

** Pullein, p. I8L 

tfNysten, page 71. 



[ 175 ] 118 

In Tuscany, 150 cocoons, from large worms, in a favorabk j^ear, and 
208 in a bad year, weigh a pound of 12 ounces. 

One hundred and ninety-live cocoons from small worms, (pestal- 
lini) in a favorable year, and two hundred and seventy-one in a bad 
year, weigh a pound. ^ 

In Pensylvania, 306 cocoons, from worms fed by the late Mr. 
Bustijt and from 490 to 600 in the establishment of Messrs. Ter- 
hoeven, weighed a pound. 

Eight hundred and eighty-two clean cocoons, from worms fed en- 
lirely on the leaves of the native red mulberry tree, by Mr. Joshua 
Pierce, of Washington City, v/eighed a pound, six months after they 
were formed. 

An ounce of eggs will produce from 30 to 40 pounds of cocoons, 
according to Mr. DelalauzeJ in France. 

Mr. Stephenson says that, in Languedoc, one quintal of cocoons, 
(104 Amer.) will yield from nine to ten pounds of spun silk; and that 
from five to ten pounds of silk is the produce of an ounce of eggs: five 
pounds are deemed a fair return. 

Four cocoons from imported eggs, the wQrms fed by Mr. Dusar, of 
Philadelphia, v/eighed each, with the flos, 241, 31 i, 26i, and 28| 
grains, troy. 

Proportion of eggs to cocoo7is. 

In an establishment in France, where from 10 to 12 ounces of eggs 
were for 22 years regularly hatched, each ounce produced from 63 to 
95 pounds of cocoons, once only 63. In another, in which six ounces 
were annually hatched, during ten years, each ounce produced con- 
stantly a quintal of cocoons. § In Italy, according to Dandolo, the ave- 
rage yield is only 45 lbs., but he adds that 120 lbs. should be the pro- 
duce. In another part, Novara, of the same kingdom, 100 lbs., and 
at Varese, from -50 to 60 lbs. were obtained. || In Tuscany, every 
pound of eggs, (the pound reduced to nearly 12 oz.) yielded 100 lbs., 
in the establishment of Lambruschini.lF Bandolo says, that one pound 
and a half of male and female cocoons will yield two ounces of egg^. 
Sauvage** estimates the proportion of cocoons from an ounce of eggs 
producing 40,000 worms, to be from 50 to 100 lbs. of cocoons; the 
chance of success being in an increase ratio to the proportion of eggs. 
One hundred pounds of cocoons will be produced from one ounce, 
while only 60 pounds will be the yield of (5ne ounce, when ten ounces 
are hatched together. This difference must certainly result from the 
want of room for the worms proceeding from the larger quantity, and 

* Trans. Georgophile Soc. of Florence, vol. 4, p. 411. 

f Memoirs Phila. Soc. fertile Prom. Agric. vol. 5, p. 266. 

^ Traite sur des Vers a Soie, p. 290. 

^ Nystcn, Recherches sur la Maladies des Vers a Soie, p. 111. 

II Mun-ay on the Silkworm, Edmb. 1826. 

^ Atti della Soc. &c. — or Trans, of the Georgophile Soc. Florence, vol. 4, p. 411. 

** First Memoir, p. 52. 



119 [ 175 ] 

from the greater ease with which an ounce can be attended to while 
hatching, than ten ounces. This reasoning applies also to the worms 
while feeding. 

Proportion of different qualities of cocoons, in various parcels, be- 
fore and after being baked. 

The following facts, on this subject, are taken from the MS. Journal 
left by Mr. James Habersham," on the progress of the silk culture in 
Georgia, while a colony. 

50 lbs. of green (unbaked) cocoons produced, of the first lbs. oz. 

quality, hard and weighty - - - 27 00 

of the second quality a little woolly - 10 04 

of dupions, or double balls, - - 12 12 

27 lbs. 2 oz. of green cocoons produced, of the first quality, IS OS 

second quality, 5 02 

dupions 3 OS 

18 lbs. 8 oz. of the first quality, weighed after being cured, 16 02 

5 lbs. 2 oz. second do. _ - _ 4 06 

3 lbs. 8 oz. dupions - - - 3 00 

7 lbs. 3| oz. of cocoons produced, of the first quality, 5 01| 

second do - 1 08| 

dupions - 09 

Cocoons weighed after being cured. 

XS lbs. 8 oz. of the first quality weighed - - 16 02 

5 lbs. 2 oz. second do - - ^ 4 06 

3 lbs. 8 oz. dupions - - - 3 00 

Mr. Habersham found, " by sundry experiments, that cocoons lost 
by curing, twelve per cent., in weight. They were weighed forty- 
eight hours, or less, after being taken out of the oven. 

The following calculation of the labor attending and connected with 
the culture of silk, in Connecticut, is by John Fitch, Esq. of Mans- 
field, Connecticut.! 

One acre of full grown trees, set one and a half rods apart, will pro- 
duce forty pounds of silk. 

The labor nr\ay be estimated as follows: 

For the three first weeks after the worms are hatched, one w^oman, 
who is acquainted with the business, or children who would be equal 
to such a person. 

For the next twelve or fourteen days, five hands, or what would be 
equal to five, if performed by children. In this period, two men, 
with other help, would be employed to better advantage, than all wo- 
men and children. This period finishes with the worms. 

* President of the Council of Georp;ia. 

f Letter to the Hon. John Baldwin, Member of the House of Representative?.-, 

January 17, 1820. 



[ 175 3 ISO 

For picking off the balls, and reeling the silk, it will require about 
the s:ime amount of labor, for the same length of time as the last 
mentioned period, which may all be performed by women and chil- 
dren. The aforesaid labor and the board may be estimated at eighty 
dollars, spinning the silk at thirty-four dollars; forty pounds of silk^ 
at the lowest cash price, is now worth two hundred dollars — which 
makes the following result: 

40 lbs. silk at ^ 5 per pouiid - - $ 200 00 

Labor and board - - ^80 

Spinning _ » - ^ 34 

= 114 00 



Nett profit per acre - - - ^ 64 00 

The principal part of the labor may be performed by women and 
children. But where the business is carried on to a considerable ex- 
tent, it is considered more profitable to employ some men for the last 
period of the worms. 



AN ABSTRACT AND CONDENSED VIEW OP THE MODE OF REARING 

SILKWORMS. 

Procure eggs in February and March, and choose those of a pale 
slate, or clay color; avoid all which are yellow, as they are imperfect. 
Keep them in a cold dry place, (where water will, however, not 
freeze,) until the leaf-buds of the mulberry begin to swell. If the 
eggs be soiled, dip the paper or cloth to which they adhere, in water, 
once or twice, to wash off the coat with which they are covered, and 
which will impede the hatching of the worms. Dry them quickly ii> 
a draught of air, and put them in one or more shallow boxes, lined 
with paper; which place, if possible, in a small room, of the tempera- 
ture of 64°, and keep it up to that degree for the two first days, by 
means of a fire in the chimney, or, still better, in a brick, tile, oj* 
porcelain stove; or, for want of these, in an iron stove; and use tan- 
ners' waste-bark, turf, or charcoal, for fuel, to promote and keep up a 
regular heat, day and night. The third day increase the heat to 66* 
the fourth to GS"", the fifth to 71°, the sixth to 73°, the seventh to 75°, 
the eighth to 77°, the ninth to 80°, the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth, to 
S2°.* It is im.possible to expect regularity in hatching, if reliance be 
placed upon our very variable w^eather; and it is the regularity of the 
worms coming forth, which will ensure their uniform growth, savei 
much trouble in feeding and attending those of various ages, and cause 
the whole, or the greater part, to form their cocoons at the same time^ 
provided proper care be given during their progress. 

* For the importance of a thermometer, see p. 59- 



121 I 175 3 

When the eggs assume a whitish hue, the worm is formed : cover the 
eggs with white paper, (never use a newspaper,) pierced full of holes 
the size of a large knitting needle; the worms when hatched will creep 
through them : turn up the edges of the paper to prevent their crawling 
off. Lay twigs of the mulberry, having two or three dry and young 
leaves, on the paper, to collect the worms, and more as they continue 
to mount. For want of mulberry leaves, feed for a short time upon 
lettuce leaves, perfectly dry; if large, they should be cut in strips, and 
the mid-rib thrown aside. The worms first hatched are the strongest: 
nevertheless, if only a few come out on the first day, give them away, 
to save trouble, and depend upon those which appear on the second 
and third days. Give away, also, the produce of the fourth day, and 
then the whole stock will go on regularly. If it be wished to rear all 
that are hatched, endeavor to keep the produce of each day separate, 
by numbering the boxes and shelves. When the leaves on the twigs 
are loaded with worms, the boxes containing them are to be removed 
to a new apartment, and the worms gently placed on clean stout white 
paper, laid on frames filled with crossed rattans, (see plate 2, fig. 3,) 
giving them a plenty of room. The shelves over which these frames 
should slide, may be four feet square, and fixed to upright posts, (p. 55;) 
or the apparatus of the Rev. Mr. Swayne may be used to great advan- 
tage; (see p. 56, and the description.) They may be multiplied as re- 
quired. Whether a distinct building or apartment in a dwelling house 
be devoted to a large parcel, it is absolutely necessary to secure the 
command of a gentle circulation of air, by having ventilators in the 
windows,* floors, and doors. (Seep. 55.) Red ants are deadly ene- 
mies to silkworms. To prevent their attacks, the posts containing fixed 
shelves ought not to touch the ceiling, nor must the shelves reach the 
walls; their legs should be smeared with thick molasses; those of Mr. 
Swayne's moveable frame may also be thus treated, or they may stand 
in a plate of water. Guard also against cockroaches and mice. 

The worms being all hatched, whether they are to remain in the first 
apartment, or be removed to a distinct building, the heat must be re- 
duced to 75°, for as the worms grow older they require less heat. 

When a large quantity of worms are to be removed from the boxesy 
the task is to be performed in the manner directed in p. 69. The mode 
of transporting a parcel to a distance, is also given in p. 70. 

That is, until the w^orms have passed their first moulting, or changed 
their first skin. 

The apartment must be light, but the Sun must not shine on the 
worms in any stage. 

Feed the worms with the most tender leaves, four times a day, al- 
lowing six hours between each meal, giving the smallest quantity for 

* One or more tin circular ventilators, in place of panes of glass, would always se- 
ure a regular circulation in the apartment; they could be stopped when their motion 

-; not required. 

16! 



L 



170 ■{ i'2^ 



the first feeding, and gradually increasing it at eacli meal between tiie 
moultings. 

In about an hour and a half, the silkworms- devour their portion of 
leaves, and then remain more or less quiet. Whenever food is given, 
widen the space for them. Scattered food may be swept into its place. 

Experiments may be made, as to the (comparative advantage of using 
chopped or whole young leaves. Danaolo insists upon the necessity 
of the former. If chopped, a sharp knife must be used, to preven': 
the leaves from being bruised, and thereby causing the exudation of 
water from them, which would prove injurious. On the fourth day, 
the skin becomes of a hazel color, and looks shining; their heads 
enlarge, and assume a silvery bright appearance. These are marks of 
their approaching first change. Their food, on this day, therefore, 
may be diminished, or when these appearances take place, but not be- 
fore. Enlarge the spaces as the worms increase in size. The leaves 
ought to be gathered a few hours before they are used, that they may 
lose their sharpness. They keep very well in a cool cellar three 
days. The leaves ought to be gathered over night, for the morning's 
meal, to prevent the danger of collecting them in rainy weather. 
The leaves must be pulled carefully, and not bruised. On the fourth 
day, the appetites of the worms begin to decrease, preparatory to their 
iirst moulting, and their food must be diminished in proportion as the 
previous meal has not been completely eaten. If the precarious heat 
of the w^eather has been depended on, the first change may not appear 
until the sixth or seventh day. 

In the course of t\ie filth day, all the worms have been torpids 
During this period, they must, on no account, be disturbed. A few 
begin to revive at the close of it; some leaves may be then given. 
After the first moulting, the worms are of a dark ash color. 

- Second tdge. 

As the worms are fond of the young twigs, some of these should 
be spread over them with the leaves attached, upon which the worms 
will immediately fasten, and they may then be removed to a clean 
paper; or lay a strip of chopped leaves near the worms, and they will 
leave the old food. The litter is to be taken away; but, as some of 
the worms often remain among the old leaves, they ought to be ex- 
amined; to this end, the litter should be removed to another room, 
spread out on a table, and a few twigs placed over it, on which the 
worms, if any, will mount, when they may be added to the others. 
This rule must be attended to after every moulting. The two first 
meals of the first day, should be less plentiful than the two last, and 
must consist of the most tender leaves. These must be continued for 
food until after the third moulting. 

If, between the moultings, any worms should appear sick, and ceasG 
to cat, they must be removed lo another room, where the air is pure, 
and a little Vv^armer than that they have left, put on clean paper, and 
some fresh leaves, chopped fine, given to them. They will soon re- 
cover, and tbeu mav be added to the others. 



±23 I 115 J 

Qn the third day, the appetite of many worms will be visibly di- 
minished; and, in the course of it, many will become torpid. The 
next day, all are torpid: on the fifth, they will all have changed their 
skins, and will be roused. The thermometer should range between 
73° ard 75° in the second age. 

The color of the worms in the second age, becomes a light gray; 
the muzzle is white, and the hair is hardly to be seen. 

It.m.ust never be forgotten, that, during the time the worms are oc- 
cupied in moulting, the food should be greatly diminished, and no 
more given than will satisfy those which have not yet become torpid 
on the first day, or those which have changed their skins before thf 
others. 

Third Age, 

During this age, the thermometer must range between 7i° and 73°. 
All the worms should be roused before anv are removed. The re- 
vived worms are easily known by their new aspect. The latest worms 
should be placed apart, as their next moulting will be a day later also: 
or they may be put in the hottest part of the room to hasten their 
growth. This rule must also be observed in \h^. next moulting. In- 
crease the spaces. 

The second day, the two first meals are to be the least copious, the 
two last the greatest, because towards the close of the day, the worms 
grow very hungry. The third day will require about the same quan- 
tity as the preceding last m.eals; but, on the fourth day, as the appe- 
tites of the worms sensibly diminish, not more than half of the form- 
er feed will be required. The first meal is to be the largest: feed those 
which will eat at any time of the day. The fifth day still less will 
suffice, as the greatest part are moulting. The sixth day tliey begin Xp^ 
rouse. 

Fourth Jige^ 

The thermometer should range between 68° and 71°. If the 
weather be warm, and the glass rise several degrees higher, open the 
ventilators, exclude the sun, and make a siiglit blaze in the chimney, 
to cause a circulation of the air. Widen the spaces for the worms. 
The leaves must now be regularly chopped in a straw cutting box, 
or with the chopping knife. The food is now to be greatly increased 
on the second, third, and fourth days: on the fifth, less will be re- 
quired, as, in the course of this day, many become torpid: the first 
meal, on this day, should therefore be the largest. On the sixth, they 
will want still less, as nearly all will be occupied in effecting their last 
change of skin. Renew the air in the apartment hy burning straw or 
shavings in the chimney, and open the ventilators. If the evenings 
be cool, after a hot day, admit the external air for an hour. None but 
full grown leaves should be hereafter given to the worms; and they 
must all be chopped. Avoid the fruit, as they would prove injurious, 
and add greatly to the litter. On the seventh day. all the wo,rm«! ^viP 
have rni.ised. and thus finish thoir foiTrth oji'e. 



!_ 115 J iM4 

Fifth age, or until the ivorms prepare to mount. 

In a large establishment, the exhalations from the worms and their 
litter, united to the heat of the atmosphere, sometimes cause great mor- 
tality among them; the means of preventing which, are treated under 
the head of diseases. But if proper cleanliness be observed, and a free 
circulation of the air permitted, no sickness is to be feared. The ther- 
mometer should be about 68°. The constitution of the worms being 
now formed, they begin to elaborate the silk vessels, and fill them with 
the silky material, which they decompose and form from the mulber- 
ry leaves. 

Give abundance of room; do not let the worms lie so close as to 
touch one another; for their respiration will thereby be impeded; con- 
tinue to feed regularly and fully, as the appetite of the worms now 
becomes voracious; rather give food five times a day than four; even 
six small meals will not be too many. The last meal should be late 
at night, and the first of the next day, in the morning, at an early hour. 
The worms are not to be again moved, and the hurdles must be clean- 
ed, as directed in page 94. On the seventh day of the fourth age, 
they have attained their largest size, viz: three inches long, and begin 
to grow shining and yellow. The appetites of some diminish; but 
that of others continues, and must be supplied, to hasten their maturi- 
ty. The effects of a sudden increase of heat in the weather, at this 
time, will be highly injurious — see p. 96. For the mode of preparing 
the cabins for the formation of cocoons, and the treatment of the 
worms; ths gathering of the cocoons; the selection and preservation 
of those intended for seed; the birth and coupling of the moths; the 
laying and preservation of the eggs, see p. 97, and following. 

With respect to the temperature of the room, in which the cocoons 
intended to produce moths, are kept, the rule prescribed by Dandolo 
should be attended to. If it exceed 73°, they should be put in a place 
in which the thermometer will remain within the limited degrees. 
Moderate temperatures are, without exception, best adapted to the 
silkworm, the chrysalis, and the moth. Notwithstanding the difficul- 
ty of ascertaining the male from the female cocoon, yet the advan- 
tages of separating them are such, that the attempt is recommended by 
Dandolo to be made. The benefits arising from the separation are, 1st, 
that, before the moths unite, they would have leisure to evacuate the 
excrementitiouB fluid they contain, the retention of which, as will be 
seen in the chapter on the diseases of silkworms, is injurious to the 
eggs. 2d, That the moths not united are only handled once. They 
must now be watched, and after they liave evacuated the fluid, they 
are to be united, and put on a frame covered with linen, which, when 
full, must be carried into the dark room, to remain during the time 
they ought to be united. 

If, through inattention, a store of leaves has not been provided, and 
they are collected during rain, they must be thoroughly dried before 
being given, as they will inevitably sicken the worms, if fed with them 
when moist To dry a large parcel, see the chapter on diseases of 
silkworms. 



l^a [ 175 I 

On early foocL 

Sow the seeds broad cast of the white, or of the native red mulberry 
tree, in well prepared ground, as soon as ripe; they will soon vegetate. 
If the winter be cold, cover the plants with straw, or long manure. 
The first season, they will afford a small quantity of leaves; but, if wa- 
tered in dry weather, the leaves will be abundant in the second year. 
The plants will grow better if the seed be sown in drills, thinned out 
to proper distances, and kept clean. The leaves of these seedlings are 
only recommended for the young worms, and as a resource for food 
until the leaves of the standard mulberry trees have put forth. They 
have already been proscribed as food for silkworms during their wholr- 
course— p. 5.9. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

DISEASES OF SILKWORMS. 

A careful perusal of the principal practical authors upon the rearing 
of silkworms, and attention to their progress during the last season, 
in a large establishment, have led to the conclusion, that the diseases 
to which vsilkworms are subjeot in their various stages, may be referred 
to the following causes: 

1st. Errors in hatching the eggs, and treatment of very young 
worms- 

2d. Bad air of the district in which they were bred. 

3d. Impurity in the air in v/hich they are kept, arising from defi- 
cient ventilation, from exhalations of the litter of the worms, and of 
their manure, which has been permitted to accumulate. 

4th. Too close crowding, owing to which cause their spiracles or 
breathing holes, were stopped, and the expiration and inspiration of air 
prevented. 

5th. The quality and quantity of food. 

6th. Improper change of food. 

7th. Peculiar constitution of the air in certain seasons, against which 
no precautions can avail. 

8th. Frequent changes of temperature in the room in Vv-hich they 
are kept. 

I. Diseases from defect in the eggs. 

1st. When the apartment destined for the coming forth, and laying 
of the eggs of the moth is too cold, (54° or 59°,) the impregnating li- 
quor will not be perfected; and, consequently, does not sufficiently 
act upon the eggs, to give them the ash color, which, in the course of 
Rftpfn or twenty xlays, indicates the perfect imprejination. The un- 



impregnated eggs produce no worms, and those imperfectly impi-eg- 
Dated, bear in them the seed of diseases which destroy the silkworm 
in various stages of its existence. 

2d. When the room is too hot, (77° to 81°:) if the male delays 
coupling, it loses much of the impregnating liquid. If united to the 
female too soon, upon issuing from the cocoon, she has not time to 
evacuate a superabundance of excrementitious fluid with which she is 
loaded. She therefore becomes disordered, and the impregnating li- 
quor of the male is weakened, by admixture with this matter of the 
female; consequently, the eggs are imperfect. 

3d. Dampness prevents the eggs from drying, the embryo becomes 
affected, and diseases engendered. 

4th. When the place, where the eggs were kept, or hatched, has 
been or is damp, the slow and gentle evaporation of the matter con- 
tained in the shell, by which it insensibly attains the state assigned to 
it by nature, is prevented. 

5th. When the eggs are too thickly heaped together, they heat, 
even at a low temperature, and the embryo becomes injured. 

No disease will occur, 1st. if the temperature of the place where the 
moths are kept, be maintained between 68° and 75°. 2d. When the 
apartments are dry. 3d. When cloths on which the eggs are deposit- 
ed, are not folded too much, and are hung on the frames which have 
been described. 

2. Diseases from mismanagement of good eggs, and treatment of 

very young loornfis. 

1. When the embryo just verging to the worm state, in a moderate 
temperature, is suddenly exposed to a much greater heat, its organs 
Ijecome decomposed, and the shell of the worm will appear more or 
less red, which ia a certain sign of future disease. 

2. When, on the point of transformation into the worm, the embryo 
is suddenly exposed to a lower temperature; the damage is then pro- 
portioned to the length of time the heat has acted upon the embryo. 

3. When silkworms being just hatched, are exposed to a higher 
temperature than that in which they come forth, or the contrary, 
when the worm.s are exposed to a colder temperature than that in 
which they come forth. 

If. Diseases from th e bad air of the distinct in ivhich Silkworms arc 

reared. 

Low marshy places, and those in which the air is liable to stagnate, 
are very liable to produce disease. The combination of heat and mois- 
ture is death to them. On the contrary, it is universally agreed, that 
high and dry places are not only peculiarly favorable to the growth 
and health of the insects, but that the silk there produced by them, is 
much preferable to that from worms reared in places less elevated. 



1^7 [ 1^^ J 

111. Jjistases of 6'llkwonns from impuriiij in the air of the 

laboratory. 

When the air of the apartment is not renewed, particularly in the 
'fourth and fifth ages, the damp stagnates in it, the transpiration is 
checked, the dung and litter ferment, and emit noxious exhalations:" 
the skins of the worms become relaxed, and disease follows in a few 
hours. The necessity of preserving a free circulation of pure air in 
the apartment, has been often insisted on, in the preceding pages. 
The prevalence of a superabundance of damp air, may be known by 
the use of a hygrometer, or indicator of moisture, and it is easy to re- 
move this, by employing the means suggested for expelling the heavy 
air, and replacing it by light fresh exterior air. 

On the means of purifying the air, 

Hitherto it has been reckoned a good method of purifying the air 
of a laboratory to burn some odoriferous or vegetable substance, to 
produce a grateful smell, while, instead of purifying or improving the 
air, by these means, they were rendering it considerably worse. It 
has been erroneously imagined, that what usually occurs in our per- 
ception of offensive effluvia, should be equally applicable to the 
noxious qualities of the air, which, as they affect the lungs, have great 
influence on the general system of animal life. The case is however 
dissimilar; in producing a pleasant smell in the room of which the 
air is vitiated, we do but disguise to the sense the bad quality of the 
ai-r we breathe, but the lungs are not less affected. We are then mis^ 
taken in employing such means in the laboratory. 

In whatever manner any odoriferous vegetable may be burnt in the 
centre of the room, and not in the grate, and however grateful the 
odour may be, it will consume a part of the respirable or vital air 
contained in the room, and consequently must injure the air.t 

We should here speak of the harm which may be done by the smoke 
of chimneys which spreads often through the laboratory, and remains 
stagnant in it. It is very certain that, if the smoke often infests the 
apartment, it is to be feared we may see all the silkworms of a labor- 
atory perish in a moment. 

Let us now mention the means of pui ifying the internal air of the 
laboratory, and of neutralizing and destroying, in some degree, the 
poison which exhales from the fermented substances on the wicker 
hurdles^ and to produce the drying of those that are inclined to fer- 
ment. It must first be observed, that this remedy will not cost above 
.30 cents for a laboratory of worms proceeding from five ounces of 

* It is surprising to find how larg-e a portion of niephitic nli' disen;jagcs, j)anicu 
larly in the iiftli age, from the silkworms, in an establishment spacious enough to con 
tain the worms proceeding from an ounce of eggs. 

f Mr. Nysten also gives his opinion, as to the total inutiiity of all perfumes to 
V purify the air of an apartment in which silkworms are kept, p- 105. 

^ The a.-:e of the fiiiTiiga'-inp; L)ot.t'^;aiid thehvi^'ioiuetor, can only he-, necessary ')v. 
^ejy large establishments. Pure ah", food regulavly given, ckanliness^ abundance 
of space, and a proper tempcrii'Mre, are n'l 'V ' 'b": silkworms rt^qn'Tc*, to ^u^v.:-"^ 
•■■heir health. 



[ 175 J US 

Take six ounces ot common salt, mix it well with three ounces ot 
powder of black oxyde of manganese; put this mixture in a strong 
bottle, with two ounces of water, cork it well with a common cork. 

Keep this bottle in any part of the laboratory farthest from the 
stove or fire-places. In a phial put a pound and a half of sulphuric 
acid, (oil of vitriol,) and keep this phial near the other bottle, with a 
small cordial glass and an iron spoon; and this is the manner of using 
it: Put into the small glass, two-thirds of a spoonful of oil of vitriol, 
pour it into the large bottle, and there will issue a white vapor. 

The bottle should be moved about through the laboratory, holding 
it high up that the vapor may be well spread in the air. 

When the vapor ceases, the bottle may be corked, and replaced: 
even should there be no perceptible difference between the interior 
and exterior air, during the fifth age of the w^orms, it is good to re- 
peat this fumigation three or four times a day in the manner just ex- 
plained. When repeating the fumigation, the quantity of oil of vitriol 
poured into the large bottle may be diminished. The stated quantity 
of ingredients will be sufficient for a laboratory of five ounces of eggs. 
The bottle may be left open an hour or two in the last days of the 
fifth age of the silkworms; and placed here and there in the labora- 
tory, and even on the corners of the wicker hurdles, to diffuse the 
vapor thoroughly. 

This remedy may be employed, whenever, on going into the labora- 
tory, the air appears to have an unpleasant effluvia, and that there is 
any closeness, or difficulty of breathing. 

1st. It may take place when the litter of the silkworm is removed^ 
particularly in the fifth age. 

2d. When in moist weather the air of the laboratory continues 
damp, even after having made the blaze, which renders the fermenta- 
tion still quicker/ 

This fumigation may be of use also towards the end of the fourth 
age, if the air be perceived to be impure. It may not be needed in 
all cases, until after the fourth age of the silk^vorms, and at the be- 
ginning of the fifth age. 

If there are several small fire-places in the laboratory, and that blazes 
are frequently made in them to agitate the air, fumigations will not 
be so much required. 

It must be observed that care should be taken not to drop any of the 
oil of vitriol, either on the skin or clothes, as it burns; and to hold 
the bottle above the height of the eyes and nose, when it is open, be- 
cause the vapor is very searching, and would be dangerous and un* 
pleasant. Should the substances in the bottle harden, a little water 
may be added, and stirred with a small stick. This easy remedy is 
more powerful than all perfumes commonly used, and produces five 
advantages in the laboratory. 

1st. The vapor in spreading immediately, destroys any unpleasant 
effluvia. 

2d. It diminishes the fermentation of the litter, and dries it up. 

3d. It neutralizes the efibct of all the miasmata, and deleterious 
'emanations that might attack the health of the silkworms. 



129 [ 175 ] 

4th. It revives the silkworms, gently stimulating them, because it 
iS composed in a great measure of pure, vital air. 

5th. The vapor is not alone favorable to the health of the silkworms, 
but influences the goodness of the cocoon.* 

Of the Hygrometer, 

Scientific men have invented various instruments fitted to measure 
the quantity of moisture which the air may contain in any circum- 
stances, using, in their construction, bodies which attract the dampness 
from the air easily, and stretch by degrees, and which contract again 
when the air is dry. A plate of common table salt, coarsely pounded, 
may answer to show the moisture or dryness of the air. Hygrome- 
ters of various materials have been constructed. The annexed cut, 

will give a good idea of a useful, sim- 
pie, and cheap one. The principle 
upon which it is constructed, maybe 
thus briefly illustrated. The effect 
which a moist atmosphere has on any 
twisted cord, is that of diminishing 
its length, by causing the spirals to 
approach each other. If, therefore, 
a long piece of string be attached to 
the peg at B, ond conveyed round the 
pulleys C, D, E, F, G, with a weight 
stispended beneath, we may, by referring to the index hand and scale, 
readily ascertain the amount of moisture that has been absorbed by the 
vegetable fibre. If the string be soaked in a solution of common salt 
in water, it will more readily indicate any slight accession of humidity 
in the atmosphere, t 

It would be desirable to have two hygrometers in a large laboratory, 
placed within a certain distance of each other, to ascertain the various 
degrees of moisture in diflerent parts of the laboratory. 

* So much Importance is attached to the use of the acid famigations by Dandolo, 
and others, that it has been thoug-ht right to retain his directions respecting- them, 
but it is proper to remark, that Mr. Nysten, after a course of laborious experiments 
with them, and with other famigations, comes to the decided conchision, that they 
are totally inefficacious as means of curing the actual diseases of silkworms. He even 
found, in an experiment with two thousand sick worms, that more died in a room 
where the famigations were continually used, than in another, in which the pure air 
was allowed to circulate freely among a similar number. He allows, however, that the 
fumigations may act as a preventive remedy, by neutraiizing the bad air of tlie apart- 
ment. It is with this view that Dandolo uses it. He confirms the repealed posi- 
tions of Dandolo, and the experience of all practical writers and cultivators, that to 
prevent the diseases of silkworms, it is only necessarvto hatch the eggs in a regular- 
ly increased heat, to feed the worms v/ith good and dry leaves, to keep them in a 
pure air of the temperature prescribed above, and, finally, to observe rigid cleanli- 
ness. He remarks that, it was not Paroletti who first used ai;id fumigation;, for 
worms, but lligaud do Liiie, who cays that he thereby diminished the mortality among 
them; but candidly acknowledger,, that he freely admitted the external aii" at the 
akme time. — Nysten sur la Maladies des Vers a Soie, pp- 101, 103. 

t>'l'". Williams. 'Hie .Scientific Gazette, p^rt 2d, p. 81- j^yndon, 1825. 
17 




[ 175 ] 130 

When the 113'grometer indicates a very damp state of~ the atmos- 
})]iere, wood shavings or straw should be burnt in the fire-places, to 
absorb the humidity, and replace it by the external air which is dried 
])y this same blaze. Blaze is preferable to mere fire, for two reasons: 
the first is, that, for instance, with two pounds of shavings, or of dry 
f^traw, there can be attracted, from all points, towards the chimney, a 
large body of air, which issues at the flue of the chimney. While, in 
the meantime, this air is replaced by another quantity of exterior air, 
which spreads over the wicker hurdles, and revives the exhausted silk- 
worms. This change of air may take place without efiecting any ma- 
terial variation in the degree of heat in the laboratory. If, on the 
contrary, thick wood were employed, it would require more time to 
move the interior air; ten times more fuel might be consumed, and 
the laboratory w^ould be too much heated. The motion of air, all cir- 
cumstances being equal, is in proportion to the quantity of blaze of 
the substances that burn quickly. When wood shavings or dry straw 
cannot be procured, small sticks of dry and light wood may answer. 
As soon as the flame rises, the hygrometer shows that the air has be- 
come drier, and the degrees of it can be seen distinctly. 

The second motive which should lead us to prefer the blaze, is the 
light it diff'uses. It cannot well be imagined how beneficial this light 
is, which penetrates every where, nor how much it influences the healtli 
and growth of the silkworms. 

lY. IHseases from ivant of r 00771, 

When silkworms lie so thick on the wickers, or feeding frames, that 
they cannot feed with ease, a difference in their development will re- 
sult, and large healthy worms will be found mixed with small and sick- 
ly worms. This mixture affects the periods of their transition ; some 
will be lively, some torpid, and others still requiring food previously 
to their transition: this confusion kills great numbers, or causes them 
to drag on a sickly existence. 

Silkworms, as stated in their anatomical description, do not breathe 
by the moutli, but by small apertures, which are placed near their 
legs, and called stigmata, or spiracles. These breathing holes are al- 
most all stopped when the worms are heaped together; hence their 
breathing becomes difficult, their transpiration ceases, and sickness 
takes place. ^' 

V. Diseases from the qualily or quantity of food. 

Remarks and cautions on tliis head, will be found in the course of 
instructions for rearing the silkworm; but it is proper to notice the 
mode in which the food affects them. 

* Several thousand worrtis were killed m. one case last summer, from the above 
cause, near Philadelphia. See the account of the disease called tripes. 



131 [ 175 ] 

i. The preservation of the health of silkworms, depends essentially 
on the leaves being perfectly dry when given to them. AVet leaves in- 
variably produce a diarrhoea. 

In the four first ages, the leaves may be easily kept two or three 
days; but on the days when the silkworms are voraciousj a number of 
persons must be continually at work to provide for their daily con- 
sumption, and dry the leaves a day or two before they are wanted. - 

To dry in a day several hundred pounds v/eight of mulberry leaves, 
proceed in the following manner: 

When the wet leaves are brought in, have them spread on brick 
floors, or on earthen floors, which should be as clean as possible. Then, 
according to the quantity, one or two persons must spread them witli 
wooden forks, turn them, throw them about, and move them much. 
This, often repeated, very soon shakes off" the w^et. If the floor is not 
of bricks, and the ground becomes wet, the leaves should be raked ofl* 
to another and drier part of the floor. 

Although the leaf appears quite dry after this operation, it still con 
tains a great deal of water in its folds, and even on its surface. 

Then twenty or thirty pounds of leaves should be spread upon a 
large coarse sheet, and doubling it into the shape of a large sack, two 
persons should hold the four corners, and shake the leaves well about 
from one end of the sheet to the other, until they appear to be quite 
dry, which will be the case in a few minutes. 

Should it be required further to dry the leaves, by burning a large 
heap of shavings, and some faggot sticks, and placing the leaves nearly 
all round the fire, taking care to turn them well with clean pitch-forks, 
they will become, by these means, as dry as if they were gathered at 
noon on a fine day; it may be efiected, as is required, in either way. 
Should the leaves be only wet with dew, drying them with the sheet 
will be sufficient. 

2. The experienced Pullein says, that the leaves of mulberry trees 
which grow in moist grounds, or in places shaded from the sun, and 
those from suckers produced from the trunk, roots, or principal arms, 
being full of sap and moisture, crude and immature, will produce fatal 
distempers in silkworms: even by giving them only one feeding, they 
are surfeited, and throw out of their mouths a greenish liquor, and a 
clear humor out of the pores of their skins, and out of the little point 
growing near the tail. This clammy moisture, by rubbing against 
one another, closes up the spiracles, or breathing holes. 

3. Young worms should invariably be fed upon young and tender 
leaves. The strong nourishment derived from full grown leaves, as 
has been already mentioned, produces disease in them. Old leaves must 
be reserved for worms in their advanced ages. 

4. Over feeding and scantiness of food, are the remote causes of dis- 
ease. Unceasing attention should therefore be paid, to have the worms 
regularly supplied with food, and in proportion to their appetites. 

VI. Diseases from change of food. 

When silkworms have been fed upon the leaves of the native red 
mulberry tree, they sometimes become diseased, when these leaves 



[ 175 ] 132 

are changed for those of the white species: and the same effect takea 
place when the order is reversed. In the first case, if permitted, they 
will eat so ravenously, as to be deprived of the ability to digest their 
food, and will burst; in the latter, a derangement of their functions, 
and general debility takes place. From the facts detailed in page 44, 
of the leaves of both species of the mulberry being indiscriminately 
eaten, when mixed, and given to the worms, it might be supposed 
that no injury would arise from a change of the leaves of the white to 
those of the red species, but the following case, among others which 
could be cited, shows that the experiment is not safe, ^' On one oc- 
casion, a neighbor being deficient in white mulberry leaves, about the 
time the wor ns were preparing to spin, gave them a quantity of the 
black [red] mulberry leaves. The worms fed readily upon them, but 
immediately sickened, and performed their task of winding very im- 
rjeriectly.'^* It is possible, that, in this case, a partial cause of the 
effect produced, may have been the quantity of the food given to the 
wQi ms. The change of nourishment, when rendered necessary, should 
be gradual. The danger arises, as in the preceding case, from a sub- 
stitUtioQ of one leaf for another, in the late stage of their existence: 
for ii has been already observed, that, before this time, silkworms can 
be supported upon lettuce and other leaves, and that afterwards resort 
can be had safely and beneficially to those of the mulberry. A recent 
experiment shows that, until this critical epoch no injury will attend 
a change of the foreign for the native leaf. Mr. Prince, of Flushing, 
Lon"- Island, ^' fed some silkworms until they were half-grown, upon 
the white mulberry, and then finished them upon the native species; 
they grew so rapidly, that they commenced spinning in twenty-one 
days, and produced excellent silk." 

VII. Diseases from peculiar constitutioji of the air. 

The injurious influence of certain states of the air upon the produc- 
tion of fruits, has long been observed by farmers and horticuituristSy 
particularlv in respect to grapes: and the same influence is often ex- 
perienced by the cultivators of silkworms. Dandolo has noticed the 
extremely unfavorable state of the atmosphere in Italy in the year IS 14. 
These pecaliar states of the atmosphere in certain localities, not beino- 
referrible to its sensible qualities, renders it impossible to guard against 
the injurious effects produced by them on silkworms.! 

When such a state of the atmosphere takes place, we must be the 
more particular and attentive in guarding against the usual and known 
causes of disease. 

* Georrs-e A. Tuffts, Esq. of Worcester county, MassacIiusettG: answer to the silk- 
circular. 

+ it is mucl) to be regretted that science has not yet enabled \\^ to ascertain the pre- 
cise causes to wiiich the bad air, in paiticular places, is to be ascribed. The Eudio- 
meter will g'ive the constituent proportions of the air of a place? but repeated experi- 
ments with it, on lar.d and sea, in balloons, and steeples highly elevated, and in deep 
caves, in an orchard in bloom, and in tlie cliamber where a malignant fever prevails, 
give results so very nearly similar, that it is impossible to ascribe the health of one 
place, or the prevalence of an epidemic in another, to the greater or less abundance 
CI ;tny porijou of the airs v/fiich enter into the cpmpositicn of the atmospherCb 



133 [ 175 1 

VIII. Diseases from sudden changes of temperature. 

The great importance of preserving silkworms uniformly in that 
particular degree of heat which ample experience has proved to be 
most proper for each particular stage of their short existence, has been 
fully pointed out in the course of the instructions for rearing them; 
and as no cause will more certainly produce disease, than inattention 
to this point, it is proper to notice it in this place. To ensure regular 
growth to the worms, and the gradual evolution of their fine organs, 
it is essential to protect them against sudden changes of temperature, 
which often amount to 40°, in the United States, in the course of twen- 
ty-four hours. Hence it is absolutely necessary to regulate the heat 
©f the apartment by a thermometer, and to warm it by means of a 
stove of brick, tile, or porcelain, in preference to one of iron; be- 
cause the heat communicated by any of the three first, will be much 
longer uniform, than when one of the last is used. The tender na- 
ture of the insect causes it to be extremely sensible to a diminution of 
temperature, and when this takes place, to the extent of several de- 
grees, they become chilled and torpid, they cease to eat, the digestion 
of their food is interrupted, their growth is checked, and the founda- 
tion of disease is laid. 

Again, danger to their health will arise from an incautious increase 
of heat, after being thus chilled; and exposure to sudden and great 
heat, w^hen near the time of spinning, will cause silkworms to cease 
eating, to become enfeebled and relaxed, and sometimes to die. The 
Abbe Sauvage* particularly notices the danger to their health from 
this cause. In the summer of 1825, vast numbers were killed froni 
it, in Mansfield, Connecticut.! 

PARTICULAR DISEASES OP SILKWORMS. 

The Passis. — This disease appears after the first moulting, wherc- 
the v/orms advance unequally in growth; they are observed to be 
short, thin, and without vigor or appetite: it is ascribed to their being 
too much heated in their early state. The remedies consist in separ 
rating them from the healthy worms, putting them in another apart- 
ment which is well ventilated, giving them tender leaves, and in pre- 
serving them in a uniform temperature, which ought to be a little 
higher than that in which the healthy ones are kept; for although heat^, 
unduly applied, was one cause of their disease, yet, when feeble, they 
require more warmth than healthy worms to restore their vigor. 

The Grasserie. — This appears towards the second moulting, and in 
the third or fourth ages. It is ascribed to the food being too substan- 
tial or nourishing for the young worms. They eat, but they do not 
digest their food: hence they swell, their bodies become opaque and 
of a green color, and their skins tear from the least touch, and some- 

* 3d Memoir, p. 70. 
T John Fitcbj Esq. 



[ 1^5 3 134 

times spontaneously from over distension. Their bodies are also 
covered with a viscous oily humor, which transudes the skin. Mr. 
Nystcn says, that it is owing to the too gkitinous nature of the food 
given to the worm in the second and third ages; because he has seen 
the disease attack worms when thus fed, which those that had eaten 
tender leaves escaped; and from the prevalence of the disease in Pied- 
mont, and in the Department of the Mouths of the Rhone, where the 
Spanish mulberry, which has hard and large leaves, is cultivated, 
whilst it is seldom seen in the Department of the Drome and Isere, 
where that variety of the mulberr}?^ is rare. If this theory be correct, 
-(and it certainly is very rational,) the remedy is obvious: to feed the 
worms in their three first ages with tender leaves, and to avoid the 
variety of mulberry mentioned: this, by the way, it is thought, has 
not been introduced into the United States. 

The Lusette. — About the. fifth age, silkworms are sometimes attack- 
ed with a disease called lusette,OY clairette, from the shining appear- 
ance of their bodies. Their heads also increase in size; they cease 
growing, and die without forming cocoons. On opening them, their 
stomachs are found full of a glairy transparent fluid, without any re- 
mains of food; and hence it has been justly ascribed to a neglect of 
the sunply of mulberry leaves. This tlieory was proved by Mr. 
Nvsten, who produced the disease by starving some worms for twenty- 
four hours. The means of prevention and of cure are therefore ob- 
vious. Care should, however, be taken to separate the affected worms 
from the healthy ones, and to supply them with food in a gradual man- 
ner, to prevent an opposite disease arising from too sudden repletion. * 

The Yellows. — This disease appears toward the end of the fifth age, 
when the worms are filled with the silky fluid, and are about to spin. 
The Abbe Sauvage ascribes it to exposure of the worms to sudden and 
oreat heat. It consists in a yellowness and sw^elling of the body, an 
enlargement of the rings, an appearance of the feet being drawn up 
from "the puffiness of the surrounding parts. The worms also cease to 
eat, and run about, leaving stains of a yellow fluid, which exudes from 
their bodies. The yellowness first appears round the spiracles, or 
breathing holes, and gradually diffuses. It is a kind of anasarca or 
dropsy of the skin, arising from the infiltration of the nutritive fluid 
throu<d"i every part of their bodies. The insects soon become soft, 
and burst. The acrid humor issuing from them, will kill any worms 
that touch it. Sauvage also ascribes it to a defect of transpiration, to 
indigestible food, and to exposure to cold during rainy weather; and 
directs to dry the air of the apartment, by lighting fires in the chim- 
ney-of the apartment during rainy weather. The yellows or jaunesse, 
and the orasserie, are deemed the same disease by Sauvage and Nys- 
ten; but the grasserie is more serious when it occurs during the moult- 
in"-, than when it takes place towards the last age. In the former, it 
is a general disease; in the latter, it is merely accidental. Whenever 

* Tlecherches sur la Maladies des Vers a Sole, par P. H. Nysten, p. 116. I)es Vers 
a Scie, parM. Reynaud, p. Ill, Paris, 1824. 



135 [ 175 ] 

they do occur, they are to be dreaded, and should be attended to with- 
out delay. The diseased worms must be removed to a separate apart- 
ment, where a change of air, aided by fires, may cure them. The dead 
worms should be carefully buried, to prevent their being eaten by poul- 
try. In one case of this disease, which occurred in Bucks county, 
Pennsylvania, in the year 1772, oak leaves were laid in the way of the 
worms, and were greedily devoured by them, and cured. In another, 
these leaves were given by design, and with similar good effect. The 
particular species of oak was unfortunately not mentioned. 

The Muscardine. — This is caused by a continuance of a hot, dry, 
close, or calm state of the air; and shows itself by black spots in dif- 
ferent parts of the worm. These spots afterwards become yellow, and 
finally red, or of the color of cinnamon, which is difiused over the 
whole body. The worm becomes hard and dry, and is covered with 
a white mould. The disease appears in the fifth age. The remedy is, 
to purify the air, by the use of the fumigations recommended by Dan- 
dolo, and by the admission of fresh air from the external atmosphere, 
and to cause it to circulate by means of ventilating openings in the room. 

The Tripes, or Mort Blanc. — This disease appears during moist 
or rainy weather. Mr. Nysten proved by experiments,* that it also 
proceeds from the confined exhalations of the worms and their litter. 
They become flaccid and soft, and, when dead, preserve the semblance 
of life and health; but they soon turn black, and become putrid. The 
remedies are obvious: In the first case, the air of the apartment should 
be warmed, and made to circulate, by lighting fires in the chimney; 
and, in the latter, by removing the diseased worms to a clean shelf or 
table in another room. The means of preventing the disease are, 
uninterrupted circulation of warm dry air, and rigid attention to clean- 
liness. 

The foregoing account of the diseases of silkworms ought not to 
alarm the cultivator. They will be preserved in perfect health, if the 
causes mentioned are avoided; or the prescribed means, if used in time? 
will cure them. 



CHAPTER XV. 



PREPARATIONS FOR REELING THE SILK. 

How io take off the flos, or loose silk, from the cocoons: the rea- 
sons for sorting them . 

Before the cocoons are reeled, it is necessary to free them from that 
loose, fuzzy silk which is on their outside, and is called flos; it being 
of so fine and loose a consistence, and partly broken by taking it from 
the branches, or frames, where the worms had spun them, that it can- 

*Sur les Maladies des Vers a Soic, p. 49. 



C 175 ] 136' 

ftot be reeled off. It iliay be taken off by opening it on one of th^ 
ends of the cocoons, and then thrusting out the hard part of themj 
clearing off, at the same time, the loose silk adhering close to them, 
and mixing this part with the flos, to make ordinary cheap silk. Then 
sort the cocoons according to their different degrees of hardness. If 
the strong, the tender, and the double ones are mixed, the trouble is 
not only greatly increased, but, in reeling, the threads frequently 
break, and the value of the silk is thereby lessened. For the proof of 
this, let us suppose only two cocoons, one compact and hard, and the 
other of a loose and soft substance, thrown together into the hot water, 
in order to be reeled off together, and to make one thread. If, now, 
the water be sufficiently hot to let the hardest of the two cocoons 
wind off with ease, by dissolving its gumminess, then that water will 
be too hot for the other, the substance of which is loose, so that it 
will run off in burrs; that is, flakes of the silk will come off without 
being drawn to their extent; which burrs, as they pass the guide-wires, 
will endanger the breaking of the thread, filling it also with lumps and 
inequalities. On the other hand, if the water be of the proper tem- 
perature for the soft cocoon, so as not to occasion the above incon- 
venience, it will then not be hot enough for the hard cocoon, so that 
its thread will riot be given off, without some stretch and violence, 
which endangers its breaking, and giving the trouble of adding a fresh 
cocoon; and,' in both cases, the single fibres of the cocoons being une- 
qually stretched in reeling, will make the combined thread the weaker, 
and less even and glossy; since the single fibre of that cocoon which 
was most stretched by the reel, will, upon disbanding, contract itself 
more than the other, and be separated from it in some places. On 
these accounts, having first separated the double cocoons, and also 
those which contain nothing but flos, with any others, which, being 
imperfectly formed, cannot be reeled, sort the perfect cocoons into 
three kinds, according to their different degrees of hardness, which can 
be readily perceived, and throw them into three different baskets.* 

The cocoons may be divided into two general heads, or classes; the 
white and the yellow. In the yellow, we meet with all the shades 
from a bright yellow, diminishing, at last, to white; some few are a 
pale green. We may reckon nine different qualities of cocoons, which 
are met with, more or less, in all filatures or reeling establishments. 

1. The good cocoons are those which are brought to perfection, and 
are strong, hard, of a fine grain, and little or not at all spotted. 

2. The pointed cocoons are those, of which one of the extremities 
rises up in a point. After having afibrded a little silk, the point which 
is the vreakest part, breaks, or tears, and it is impossible to continue 
to wind them any longer; because, when the thread comes round to 
the hole, it is, of consequence, broken, and the whole contains nothing 
but ends. 

3. The cocalons are a little larger than the others; yet they do not. 
contain more silk, because their texture is not so strong. 

* rsillelu on the cuJture of silk, p. 25%. 



liM r lid ^ 

4. The dupiofi, or double cocoons, are so called, because they con- 
tain tivo, and sometimes three worms. They interlace their threads^ 
and make the silk called dupion. 

5. The soufflons are imperfect cocoons, the contexture of which i^ 
loose, sometimes to that degree that they are transparent, and bear the 
same proportion to a good cocoon, as a gauze to a satin. These can« 
not be wound. 

6. The perforated cocoons are so called, because they have a hole 
at one end; for \yhich reason they also cannot be wound. 

7. The calcined cocoons are those in which the worm, after the for- 
mation of the cocoon, is attacked with a sickness, >vhich sometimes 
petrifies it, and, at other times, reduces it to a fine white powder, 
without in the least damaging the silk. On the contrary, these co- 
coons produce more silk tlian the others, because the worm is lighter. 
They are to be distinguished by the noise the petrified w*orm makes 
when the cocoon is shaken. In Piedmont, they sell for as much more 
as the others. It is very rare to see a parcel of 25 lb. of them at a 
time: 6 lb. 3 oz. of these cocoons have produced 1 lb. fine silk, of five 
and six cocoons. 

8. The good choquette, consists of those cocoons in which the worm 
dies before it is brought to perfection: they are to be known by the 
worms sticking to one side of the cocoon, which is easily to be per- 
ceived, when, on shaking it, the chrysalis is not heard to rattle. These 
cocoons are of as fine silk as the others, but they are to be wound se- 
parately, because they are subject to furze out, and the silk has not so 
bright a color, nor is it strong and nervous. 

9. The bad choquette is composed of defective cocoons, spotted cr 
rotten; many of these cocoons may be wound together; they make 
very foul, bad silk, of a blackish color. 

To jud^e whether a cocoon be good, observe if it be firm and sound; 
if It has a fine grain, and the two ends round and strong, and capable 
o£ resisting pressure between the thumb and finger. The cocoons of 
a bright yellow yield more silk than the others, because they have 
iTiOre gum; but this accounts to the winder only, because all the gum 
is lost in dying. Pale cocoons have less gum, lose less in winding, 
and take a better white or pale blue.* 

To the foregoing kinds of cocoons, another is mentioned in recent 
French works, and called sattiny. Its tissue is coarse and like flannel^ 
4nd the surface shines. The silk of this cocoon is bad. 

As it will be useful to know the precise dimensions of a stove and 
basin used for heating water for cocoons, the following details are 
given by "Mr. Stephenson, of an establishment at Montauban, in 
France: Height of the stove from the ground, twenty-two inches; 
length of the stove, twenty-nine inches and a half; breadth, twenty- 
fpur inches; height of the iron bars for supporting the charcoal from 
the ground, for holding the fire, twelve inches; width of the door, or 
cnening at the bottom of the stove for taking out the ashes, and fc: 

• Trans Amf^r- V\v\o°. 9or. vol. ^. 

4a . ^ , 



£ 175 3 138 

giving air to the fire, nine inches; width of the door to put in the chai^ 
eoal, seven inches and a half; length of the oval copper basin built on 
the top of the stove to hold hot water, twenty inches and three quar- 
ters; width of the basin, sixteen and a half inches; depth of basin, 
three inches and three quarters; breadth of the rim of the basin, one 
inch and a quarter. 

Instead of using a common stove or furnace to heat water for the 
cocoons, steam has been proposed and used by Messrs. Gensoul and 
Aldini. Upon the plan of the first, the steam is admitted directly 
into the water containing cocoons intended to be reeled; but the last 
adopts another mode, which, upon a large scale, is certainly to be pre* 
ferred. A copper boiler covered, and w^ith a hollow bottom, has a 
vertical tube adapted to the centre of the cover, w^ith a cock, by means 
of which, the water intended to furnish steam is admitted. This boiler 
will hold four pints,* (French) and at the beginning of the process, it 
is to be filled to nearly two-thirds. The vertical cylinder has a tube 
with a cock, through which the steam is introduced into a wooden 
tube, placed on its vside, to the external surface of a vase above it, and 
gives out steam at its extremity through a series of small boles turned 
towards the bottom of the vase; the holes are to avoid the inconve- 
nience arising from the too rapid escape of the steam. This vase is of 
copper, and contains six pints of water. The steam-box is tinned on 
the bottom inside, and a little inclined to the side of the boiler, with 
which it communicates by a tube, with a cock, conveying back the 
condensed steam to the bottom of the boiler. Thus the water in which 
the cocoons are put, is regularly and permanently heated, without any 
loss of water, supplying the steam, and without the injurious ebulli- 
tion of the water which takes place when steam is introduced directly 
into it, and which causes the rapid and irregular motion of the cocoons 
in the basin, t 

The annexed cut will give an accurate idea of the construction of thf. 
apparatus of Aldini: 





''^ri:'a ^r'giro-jL^:.riii!;'ij ' ^-.i:,<i;^^3v;;T.^n /TtrE 



■^.^vid^'i^a^^g^^^s^ 




Upon a small scale, the common clay furnaces made in Philadelphia, 
answer very well to heat wMter in a copper basin placed upon them. 

The temperature of the water is to be regulated, 1st, by the nature 
of the silk, resulting, in part, from the quality of the food upon which 
the silk-caterpillars have been fed. This is exemplified in a striking 

• A French pint is about a quart American measure. 

^ Recherches sur I'application exterieure de la Vapeiu* poTire'chaiiffer IVau dan5 
ia filature de It; sole; par Ic Chevalier Aldini, Paris. 181^ 



139 [ 115 ] 

irianner by a Jact recorded by Aldiniy* which isj that, in Piedmont and 
in Lombardy, the gummy cement of the cocoons is so easily soluble, as 
to require the water to be heated only to 60^ or QQ^ of Reaumur, (168°, 
181° of Fahrenheit,) w^hile the cocoons spun in the south of Italy, and 
particularly in the Papal territories, require a heat of 80° of R., (212'-^ 
of F.) owing to the greater tenacity and solidity of the gum. 2d, The 
Stateof the cocoon, as regards its firmness, influences theheatof the water, 
as shall presently be mentioned. Experiments can alone, therefore, de- 
termine the various degrees of heat requisite for the water in different 
places, and for the several varieties of cocoons, and even for different: 
parcels of cocoons of the same sort. As this is a point connected with 
the success of the operation, it affords another argument for the use 
of the thermometer, in order to ensure it, and to prevent the delay and 
trouble which w^ill ever ensue from guessing at the heat of the 
waterj by dipping the finger in it. Our own sensations are very 
inaccurate tests of the heat of the water; the use of the thermometer^, 
besides saving much time and trouble to the spinner, will ensure an 
evenness of thread, and perfection to the whole operation.! 

The perforation of the cocoons by the moths, destroys the continuity 
of the thread, and thus spoils them for reeling. They must, therefore, 
be either reeled off, before the moths come forth, or after the worms 
have been killed: the means of doing this, are, by exposing them to 
the steam of boiling water, or to the heat of an oven. But as it is a 
fact, well established, that cocoons reel more readily, and that the silk 
is of a superior quality, when obtained without their having been sub- 
jected to either ©f these expedients, every exertion should be made te 
reel them as soon as proper, after the cocoons have been formed, t 
When the business is conducted upon a large scale, it may be impossi- 
ble to do this; in which case, the moths m.ay be prevented from coniin;^ 
forth at their usual time, by placing the cocoons in a cold vault, cellar, 
or ice-house, as formerly mentioned on the authority of the Abbe Sau- 
vage.§ 

Practical men are divided as to the best mode of killing the chrysa- 
lis: some preferring that by steam, and others that by the heat of an 
oven. — Both methods shall be described. 

The academy of Nismes deemed it so important to ascertain the 
best mode of killing the chrysalis, as to institute a set of experiments 
on the subject, in the year 1809: and they came to the conclusion, 
that the steam of hot water effected the object best, without injuring 
the quality of the silk. Six ounces of white cocoons were submitted 

•Recherche.?, &c. &c. p. 23. 

T A mercurial thermometer, as already said, chap. 6, should be prefeiTed, for those 
made with spirit cf wine are seldom accurate. 

■^ It is the general practice, in Connecticut, to reel off the silk, as soon as possible af- 
ter the cocoons have been formed, and without kiihng' the insect by cither of the means 
mentioned. 

^ See chap. J, at the close. — It placed in an ice-house, the box contaJmng' (hen' 
nru,?tfcs 'sv-ill covered to prevent the ab-'sorpticii of moisture- 



ji 



i75 J ^ l4(Ji 



to a temperature of IS'^* of steam in a close vessel, i arnished with a safe- 
ty valve for half an hour,t when the cocoons were taken out, and th6 
chrysalides were found dead. The texture and color of the Cocoons 
were uninjured, but their weight was reduced from six ounces to five 
ounces three grains. X 

The following description of a furnace for steaming cocoons iri 
France, is given by Mr. Stevenson: 

"' It is built of brick, the ground part holds the fuel, w^hich is placed 
^jpon a grate; over that, and at a little distance, a copper cauldron 
is fixed to contain the water; above this is another grate, upon which 
the cocoons are placed in a basket, the twigs of which are wide aparts> 
the more readily to admit the steam. To this grate and cauldron, ac- 
cess is had by a door opening above the entrance of the fire. The fur«» 
nace is arched with bricks, that, when the door is shut^ the steam may 
be retained within; which, in the space of eight minutes, is found efiec- 
tually to kill the insects in the cocoons. The basket is then taken out 
and put aside, to let the cocoons dry; another basket is then placed in 
the furnace with more cocoons, taking care to keep up the fire so as to 
have the v>'ater in the cauldron always boiling.'' 

If the furnace be arched, a safety valve should be fixed on the top; 
a wooden cover would be safer, over which a vvoollen rug may be 
thrown. The foundation ought to extend beyond the body of the 
brick work, and an opening in it left to admit air to the fuel, and to take 
out the ashes. It should be provided with a sheet iron door with 
hinges,havinga smaller door in it, after the manner of the door of a close 
stove; over this opening a fire stone, or cast iron plate, must be placed, 
to support the brick work above, and to prevent it from being injured 
when tlie wood is put in. A vacancy of two inches must be left be- 
tween the boiler and the surrounding brick work, to cause the flame to 
pass round it, before the smoke is permitted to escape. Fuel will thus 
be saved, and the regularity of the heat be more certainly kept up, 
v/hich is an essential point to ensure the death of all the chrysalides. 
That no doubt may remain on this head, the cocoons should be cover- 
ed instantly, after being taken out of the furnace, with a wOolIen cloth^ 
one or two hours to confine the heat. They must then be dried with=> 
out delay, or the silk will be injured. Exposure to the air in dry 
weather vvill effect this; in damp weather, they may be put in an oven^ 
<»-cntly hcatedj on clean cloths of linen or muslin, or in baskets. 

• The 'rrenzh writer from whom tliis accouiil is taken, does not luentloh the tiier- 
mometer used on tlijs occasion. It was eitlier that of Celsius, called the Centigrade, 
or of Reaumur, both of which are used in France. The scale of Celsius, between the 
freezing and boiling points, is divided into 100°. The freezing- point is marked 0, the 
Boilinf^ point 100° 75° of this, then, would be equal to CQ° of Reaumur, or 167° of Fah= 
renheit. In Reaumur's scale, the space between the boiling- and freezing' points iat 
divided into 80°. The freezing- point is marked 0, the boiUng point 80°; on this 
iScale 75'^ is equal to 202° of Fahrenheit, or 94° of Celsius. It is probable tlie writer 
rtiers to Reaumur's scale. 

t This leng-th of time is quilfc unnecessar}'. and even injurious to the cocoons. 

4 TraUc •^omnlctdeniccbanique, parBorgni". tom- 7, p, 15. I^aris.. J^'^ , 



« •^i'- 



I4i [ 175 ] 

To hake Cocoons, 

in five or six days after the cocoons have been detached from the 
branches or frames, carefully pick out all the spotted cocoons, and put 
the rest in long flat baskets, filling them within an inch of the top; 
cover them v^^ith paper, and a wrapper over it; put these baskets in 
an oven, the heat of which must be as near as possible to that of one 
from which the bread is just drawn, after being baked, * After the 
cocoons have remained an hour therein, draw them out, and to ascer* 
tain if the worms be dead, take out from the middle of the baskets a 
dupion, and open it; if the worm be dead, it may be concluded all the 
rest are so, because the contexture of the dupion being stronger than 
that of the other cocoons, it is consequently less easily penetrated by 
the heat; it ought to be taken from the middle of the basket, because, 
in that part the heat is the least perceptible. After the baskets have 
been drawn out of the oven, cover them with a thick woollen rug, 
leaving the wrapper as it was; and pile the baskets on one another. 
If the baking has succeeded, the woollen cloth will be covered with 
large drops of water, the thickness of the little finger. The baskets 
may stand covered thus for five or six hours, in order to keep in thfi 
heat, which stifles those worms which have resisted the heat of the 
oven. It is a favorable sign when some of the butterflies appear 
alive among the baked cocoons, because it is certain the others are not 
burnt; and in the attempt to kill the last worm, many cocoons might 
be burnt, as they woiild be exposed to more heat than that particular 
worm. If there be some strong and some weak cocoons, and there 
has not been time to wind them while they are fresh, (that is, without 
baking,) give the preference to the weak cocoons for winding, and 
bake the strong ones; because the latter, containing more gum, sup- 
port the baking better, and suffer less than the weak ones. If the 
cocoons are bought, put them into baskets, and set them in the sun- 
shine, (if any,) in case the oven be full, in order to stun the worms, and 
prevent them from injuring the cocoon during that time; place them 
also for an hour or two, in the open air, before they are put into the 
oven; because, when they are brought in and heaped on each other, 
they become heated and soft, and the exposure to the air restores 
their firmness. When the cocoons are thoroughly baked, spread them 
in thin laj^ers on shelves, distributed into as many f^torics as the cham- 
ber will admit, two or three feet apart, above one another, and turn 
them every day; for, if this be neglected, they would become mouldy, 
and moths would destroy them. It is necessary to pick out the spot- 
ted cocoons and the bad choquettes, which would communicate their 
infection to all the rest that may be near them; these should be wound 
as soon as possible, to prevent them growing worse. 

• The heat should be a few degrees under Uvst of boiling" vi-atcr, or 212*' of Tah- 
renheiti 80° of Rea'JLmur- The oven should not be hot enoug-h to scorch n sheet cf 



r 17a J 14 



Of royal, perforated Cocoons and Soujfflotis. 

Tiie royal cocoons are those kept for eggs. The worm having 
made a hole for his passage, the silk is cut, the continuity of the fibre 
interrupted, and cannot be wound, and is in the class of the perforated 
cocoons. Neither can the soufllons be wound, because their silk, being 
the produce of a weak, sick wornn, has not the necessary gum; besides, 
it cannot be wound, because the fibres are interlaid and entangled. 
These cocoons may, however, be profitably employed for carding and 
spinning, when subjected to particular treatment, which shall be here- 
after described. To calculate the value of these sorts of cocoons, the 
following calculations may be observed, viz: 

If the good cocoons are worth = - - lOO 

The perforated are worth - . - 33^ 

The soufflons do. - ., „ 25 

The royal cocoons do. ^ , „ 250 

But if the royal cocoons are not picked out of the best for eggs^ 
tbey are worth only 200. The best fleurett is made of royal cocoons^ 
next in value is that of perforated; and the worst, of soufflons.*' 

Mode of reeling silk from the best Cocoons. 

Preliminary Remarks. — The reeling must be performed in dry 
weather, and when the air is perfectly calm. If done in a building or 
ghed, it should be open on one side, to enjoy sun and air, and willed 
on the other, to screen ofi' the wind, which would blow about the fibres 
and thread So 

The softest water must be chosen for soaking the cocoons. The 
proper temperature for it cannot be ascertained until the reeling is 
eommcncecl, owing to the difierent composition of the silk. Some co- 
coons will require water heated from 168° to 190°; others from 190° 
to 202°. Some point between these extremes may be chosen to which 
the water should be heated in a first experiment. One thing is certain, 
that, in the United States, it must never reach the boiling point, or 
212° 

The good cocoons, the white and yellow, are the easiest to wind. 
The sattiny and the cocalons require water less heated than the others, 
Ifhot water be used for the last, they furze out in winding. The 
dupions, the choquettes, the steamed cocoons, and those which have 
been kept a long time after being baked, require the hottest water. 
The dupions require to be soaked five or six minutes before they can 
be reeled. The cocoons in which the chrysalides have not been killed^ 
by either steaming or baking, give out their silk very easily, and in 
v/ater less heated than the last mentioned sorts. The temperature of 
Hie water most proper for each particular species of cocoon being as- 
'•sjrtairr.-d by the thermometer, it must be kept to that degree by dir»- 

■* Tran". Air.er, Vlnl Poc, vc! V 



14d [_ 175 2 

pmg the instrument in it frequently; and the lire under the basin must 
DC lessened or increased as occasion may require. A little attention 
will soon enable the person who has the management of the basin, to 
preserve the water at the proper degree of heat 

The reeling is effected by the use of the apparatus represented in 
plate 1, fig. 1.* The person ch?crged with the management of the cocoons 
in the basin, must be provided with a small whisk of broom-corn, or 
of birch twigs cut sharp at the points, and, being seated behind the ba- 
sin previously filled with soft hot water, and the basin placed upon a 
furnace containing burning charcoal, she must throw into the water a 
handful or two of cocoons of one sort and degree of firmness, and press 
them gently under the water for two or three minutes, in order to 
soften the gum of the silk, and thereby to loosen the ends of the fila- 
ments. She is then to stir the cocoons with the end of the whisk, as 
lightly as possible,t until one of the fibres, or filaments, adheres to it^ 
when, disengaging it, and laying aside the whisk, she is to draw the 
filament towards her, until it comes ofl' quite clean from flos, or coarse 
s'lihj which always surrounds the cocoon, and the fine silk begins to 
appear: then, breaking ofi^ the thread, and collecting the fios first 
taken off, she must put it aside. The whisk is then to be applied again* 
to get hold of the fine fibres, all of which must be set apart, each fibrn 
hy itself, by fixing it to a piece of wood kept near to the furnace for 
that purpose, or to a frame of wood placed all around, and on the edgB 
of the copper, till the whole, or the greatest part, are arranged in this 
manner, which are thus in readiness to be thrown in, to form the thread 
of silk to be wound off. This done, she is to unite a number of tho 
fibres, according to the fineness of the intended.t thread, and delivers 
the compound thread to the reeler, who puts it through one of thc^ 
holes in the iron plate, placed horizontally above the basin containing 
the cocoons and water. Another thread is, in like manner, to be pre- 
pared; and passed through the adjoining hole. This process is repeat- 
ed with the two other holes at the other end of the plate; the two 
threads are then crossed twenty or twenty-five times, and the ends of 
each thread passed through the guide-hooks, (rampins,§) MM, of the 
traversing bar I, and on the contrary side to the hole in Uie iron plate 
through which it had previously been passed. They are then to be 

* There are several kinds or patterns of reels. The one here referred to, was \m^ 
ported by the wrter from Genoa into Philadelphia, m the year 1826, and answers 
perfectly. Mr. D. Tees, No. 150, North Front street, and B. F. Pomeroy, corner 
of Walnut and Dock streets, Philadelphia, are recommended to those who wiali to 
have silk reels made. 

f 'l"he cocoons should be juist touched. If they be struck roug-hJy, the fibres of 
the silk, in place of coming off singly, cling together in lunipK, ;,hich preventa it 
from winding off. 

t For fine silk, four fibres, from four cocoons, are to be passed through each 
of two holes in the iron plate, most distant from each other. The rule for inferior 
cocoons will be hereafter mentioned. Two skeins of silk, from good cocoons, arc 
always reeled at the same time, whether the silk be fine or coarse. Sec plate 
!, fig. 1. 

§ If these were made of brass wire, the threads would more readily p.Tw throngl^ 
.>'^!TP, and not be ?o liable tornst. ss when iron v.iv^ is W'"], 



i: 175 j 144 

carried forward, and made fast to one of the arms of the reel N. Tiie 
points of attachment of the two threads will be regulated by the dis- 
tance betvveen tlie rampins.* Both threads being fastened to the reel, 
it is to be turned with a regular, even motion, at first slowly, until the 
threads are found to run freely and easily: for it will happen that some 
of the ends, which w^cre taken to compose the thread, were false, be- 
cause, in taking oiT the flos, there may be two or three breaches made 
in the beginning of the fibres, which, in winding, will soon end, and 
must be added anew to make up the number designed for the 
thread. It might, therefore, be proper, in the beginning of the thread, 
to put a few more cocoons than it is intended to continue, which will 
soon be reduced to the proper number. 

The crossing qf the threads is so essential to their perfection, that it 
must not, on any account, be omitted. It is necessary to promote thq 
dissipation of the moisture imbibed by the fibres, and thus prevents the 
injurious glueing of the threads upon the reel. The friction of the 
threads also removes the knots, inequalities, and roughness 6n them, 
and causes a perfect adhesion of their fibres, and hence ensures their 
strength, their uniform thickness, and cylindrical form, which other- 
wise would be fiat.t Figure 1, in plate 1, will give a perfect idea of 
this first step in the preparation of silk. It represents two threads 
formed from 16 cocoons. 

As soon as the pods begin to give the thread freely, the reel is turn- 
ed with a quicker motion. If the pods leap up often, and beat against 
the iron plate P, the motion of the reel must be slackened; and if the 
threads come ofi* in burrs, it must be turned quicker. Of this the 
spinner, who has her e^^e upon the bails and thread, must, as she sees 
occasion, apprize the reeler, and, at the same time, the fire must be 
increased or diminished, that the reel may be allowed a proper mo- 
tion, which ought to be as quick as possible, without endangering the 
breaking of the thread, or hurrying the spinner, so that she cannot add 
fresh cocoons as fast as the old ones are ended. 

The quicker the motion of the wheel is, the better the silk winds ofi', 
and the better the end joins to the thread. One might imagine that the 
rapidity of the motion would overstrain and break the thread; but, 
from constant experience, it has been found that the thread never once 
breaks from the rapidity of the motion, but, on the contrary, that the 
quicker the motion is, the more advantageous it is for winding the 
silk. 

* The person having the manag-cmcnt of the cocoons in the basin, should have 
v2ry smootl^ finders, as the most trifling- rou,^hness of the skin will cause great em* 
bairassment. If the skin of the finf^-ers, thereforej of the person mentioned, be- 
rough, it must be rendered smooth, by being rubbed with sand-paper, or dog-fish skin. 

•(■ Nouvelle EncyclopKdie Metliodique, iU't. Soicrie, p. 21. From this work it ap- 
pears tliat the number of these crossings is prescribed by the 4th section of the law in 
Piedmont, of long standing, for the regulation of the reeling of silk, to be 18 or 20 
times at least. For coarser silk, tlie number of crossings is to be increased. The 
various processes of the manufacture of silk in Piedmont, are regvdated by law, (the 
result of long experience as to the best mode of procedui'e,) and are enforced by a 
strict inspection of public officers, in order to pteserv? the charact'iT ^vhirh the r\\\' 
nlkand '^.■•■n'n''s of thnt rni)?i''fv hR<»ion£r^nioved. 



145 [ 175 ] 

While the reel is turning, the spinner must continually add fresh 
ribres to each thread as fast as she can find the ends, not waiting till 
some of the number she began with are ended, because the internal 
fibres are much thinner than those constituting the external layers; but 
must constantly prepare fresh ends, by dipping the whisk among fresh 
cocoons, of which such a quantity must be occasionally thrown into 
the basin, as will suffice to supply the two threads which are reeling, 
but not more; because, by being too long soaked in the hot water, they 
would wind off in burrs. The cocoons thrown in, must be often forced 
under the water, that they may be equally soaked: for, as they swim 
w4th their greater part above water, that part would remain hard and 
stubborn, while the part which is under water would be too much 
soaked; or some hot water may be thrown upon them frequently with 
a brush, and also on the cocoons which are reeling, v%^hen they grow 
dry at top, and yield the fibres with difficulty. The supplying fresh 
ends, when the cocoons are exhausted, or diminish, or the fibres break, 
is performed by taking one end of a fibre, and throwing it lightly on 
the one that is winding, and rolling them between the thumb and the 
finger, or gently pressing them. 

As often, therefore, as the cocoons are partially wound, are exhaust- 
ed, or the fibre breaks, fresh ones must be joined, to keep up the num- 
ber requisite, or the proportion: thus three new ones may be wound, 
and two half wound, or four new ones, and the silk will then be from 
four to five cocoons. The adroitness in adding fresh threads can only 
be acquired by practice. The difficulty of keeping the thread even is 
so great, owing to the increased fineness of the fibre inside, that, (ex- 
cepting a thread of two cocoons,) we do not say a silk of three, of 
four, or of six cocoons, but a silk of three and four, of four and five, 
and of six to seven. In coarser silk, we do not calculate so nicely, as 
one cocoon more or less: we say, for example, from twelve to fifteen, 
from fifteen to twenty cocoons. In beginning a thread of ten cocoons, 
from sixteen to twenty will sometimes be required to preserve a uni- 
form thread, after a portion of the first layer has been wound off. 

The quantity of silk which can be reeled in any given time, is in pro- 
portion to the quickness with which the spinner can add fresh cocoons. 
Thus, if we suppose that every cocoon, at a medium, will either break 
or be wound off at the end of five hundred feet, then, if five such pods 
are reeled together, a fresh end will be wanted at every hundred feet 
that are reeled; if ten are reeled together, one will be wanted at every 
fifty feet; if sixteen together, then at thirty-one feet, and so on. The 
seldomer that cocoons end or break, the greater number of them can 
one spinner attend, which shows the advantage of sound cocoons, of an 
expert manager, and of every artifice, which can hinder cither the 
breaking of the single fibres, or of the whole thread. 

When, in the progress of reeling off a set of cocoons, the fibre is ob- 
served to diminish in size, in place of supplying additional fibres from 
more numerous cocoons than were at first in play, in order to keep up 
19 



[ 175 ] 146 

the uniformity in the size of the thread, the following practice is 
adopted in the Cevennes, a famous silk district of France.* 

'' In preparing fine silk, the cocoons are not wound ofl entirely, so 
as to leave the pellicle of the chrysalis bare, for two reasons: first, be- 
cause the additional fibres required to be added, when the first and 
strong part of the fibre is observed to be spent, might make the com- 
pound thread too stout, and would thus cause a waste of silk; secondly, 
because the fibre of a cocoon, which has been entirely wound off', be- 
sides being weak, also abounds in knots, which would cause it to break 
in winding, and injure its uniformity, in which the goodness of the 
thread mainly consists. Therefore, in winding fine silk, when the co- 
coon has given off' three-fourths and a half of silk,t it must be replaced 
by another cocoon ; the remainder of the first cocoons are to be set 
aside, and their silk added to that of an inferior quality. When the 
first parcel of cocoons is nearly finished, take out, with a ladle, all 
those on which some silk has been left; let them be opened, the chrys- 
alides taken out, and the shells put in a basket, with the coarse fibres 
first pulled off" with the hands from the cocoons, which were ordered 
to be laid aside. These cocoons, which are partly wound off', must on 
no account be permitted to remain in the basin: for they will obscure 
and thicken the water, and injure the color and lustre of the silk, 
which can then be used only for dark colors: besides this, the consist- 
ence of the silk is injured, and waste ensues in the winding." J The 
shells are to be buried, to prevent them from becoming offensive ; or 
they may be added to the manure heap. As a general rule, the water 
must be changed when it is discolored. 

When the spent cocoons leap up, and adhere to the iron plate, they 
must be immediately taken away, else, by choking the passage, they 
will endanger the breaking of the thread. 

When the reel has remained any time idle, the thread between the 
basin and the wires or rampins, must be wet, to cause the thread to run 
easily. Keep also the teeth of the wheels, and the mortises, in which 
the traversing bar plays, wet, to ensure regularity and ease in their 
movements. In winding the good cocoons, some defective ones will 
be found among them, which will not wind off", or are full of knobs; 
these must be taken out of the copper, and kept by themselves; they 
are called bassinats, and are to be wound apart as coarse as possible; 
they make a foul silk. 

The breaking of the fibres is principally owing either to bad cocoons, 
viz: being ill formed, (as they will be when the worms were disturbed 
and interrupted during their spinning,) or the fibres may break by an 

*This appears to be a preferable mode, as reg-ards ease of performance, and the 
preservation of a uniformity in the thread, to the old plan of increasin.^r the number of 
fibres from fresh cocoons, to add to others which may be nearly spent. 

■j" lieynaud says, p. 237, that a cocoon will preserve a uniform fibre for 300 feet. 
A Frencli foot is equal to 13 American inches. 

T De Vers a Soie etde leur Education, selon la pratique des Ccvcnncs: par M. Rey- 
naud, p. 234, Paris, 1824, 

In Italy, the pellicle or shell is used to make artificial flowers, which are said to 
surpass those from any other material. Essui surllistoire, &c. par Dclongchamps, 

p. r3. 



147 [ 175 ] 

improper regulation of the heat in the water: first, when it is not suffi- 
cient to make them wind off easy; or, second, when it is too great, 
and occasions burrs, which may stop at some of the holes throuo-h which 
the thread runs. Cocoons, also, which have two worms enclosed, will 
perpetually break. The whole thread may also break, by burrs stop- 
ping at the holes in the plate, or by the reel's being turned by jerks. 
It may be fastened, like the fibres, by layir^g the parts on one another, 
and giving them a little twist. To avoid the breaking, occasioned by 
burrs, the rampins should be just so wide as to let them easily pass. 

It would be convenient for the spinner to have a little stick erect- 
ed close to the side of the basin, to hang her whisk on, and also a 
sharp fork, with which she may draw away the spent cocoons; or 
such, as being near spent, stick at the holes in the plate: and as the 
whisk will frequently take up more ends than are immediately to be 
added, and as the spinner will sometimes have occasion to employ both 
her hands, the brush will, at that time, conveniently hang by the ba- 
sin, while the cocoons, which are attached to it, remain in the water, 
and the ends will be in readiness as they are wanted. When cocoons 
rise to the iron plate, they are to be drawn down between the fingers 
of the spread hand. 

If the spinner be under the necessity of leaving off work for any 
length of time, the cocoons should all be raised with a skimming dish 
out of the water, till her return; otherwise, by oversoaking, they 
would wind off in burrs; but it is best to continue the reeling without 
interruption, and to let fresh^ but equally experienced persons succeed 
those who are tired. 

The person who turns the reel, should have an eye to the threads^ 
and to the guide-wires (rampins) through which they pass, that he 
may apprize the spinner when any thing is wrong: for her eyes will 
be sufficiently employed about the cocoons. The reeler might also 
Rectify any thing discovered to be amiss in those parts of the thread 
which are near the reel: for one hand will always be unemployed, and 
a stop must occasionally take place. 

Though the reeler can change hands, as they tire, by turning, yet, 
for ease, he might have a support for his arm opposite to the axle of 
the reel, and so turn the handle only by that motion which can be 
given to it by the arm moving upon the elbow as a centre. 

As the heat of the water in the basin will require to be varied, ac- 
cording to the ease or difficulty with which the different sorts of co- 
coons give off their silk, the spinner should always have some cold 
water within reach, in order to cool that in the basin quickly, whofi 
the silk comes off too easily, and in burrs. The water is also neces- 
sary for the woman managing the cocoons, to cool her fingers, and to 
sprinkle the iron bar when it becomes heated. Some chips or shavings 
should also be at hand, to increase the heat quickly, when the cocoons 
do not yield their vsilk readily. 

If there should happen to be any sand in the water, the heat causes 
it to rise to the surface and fix on the cocoons — the thread of which 
will break as i^ cut; for this reason, the utmost care must be taken to 



[ 175 ] 148 

guard against it, and to remove it. Previously to being boiled, the 
water should be j3ermitted to .settle, and the pan must be carefully 
wiped; if necessary, the basin should be covered while the water is 
heating. If sand be perceived in the water, it must be poured off, and 
the sand wasHed out, for a single grain may cause the fibre to break. 

When the cocoons are first put in the water, if the silk rises thick 
upon the brush, or comes in lumps, it is a sign that the water is too 
hot; if the thread cannot be caught, the water is too cold. When the 
cocoons are in pla}^, if they rise often to the holes in the iron plate, 
the water is too hot; if the cocoons do not follow the threads, it is too 
cold. 

Keep an equal number of cocoons working at each end of the basin, 
in order to preserve the thread of silk of an equal size. When there 
are fewer on one side than the other, the silk becomes smaller at that 
side, and the thread will break. Therefore, throw in the cocoons one 
by one, and never more than two at a time. 

It will be seen, by observing the position of the thread upon the 
reel, that the different layers do not lie parallel to, nor upon, but cross 
one another. This is owing to the mechanism of the apparatus, and 
is particularly contrived to effect this object, which is essential to the 
perfection of the process, and one to which the acknowledged superi- 
ority of the Italian silk is to be ascribed. It is effected by the see-saw 
or horizontal motion of the traversing bar, and is produced by the 
different number of the teeth in the pinion of the axle, and in the 
wheels at the ends of the shaft E, and in the pinions on the top of the 
post K, which catch and work upon one another. Without this cross- 
ing, the threads, from their gummy nature, would inevitably adhere, 
and render the subsequent windings and twistings of the silk very- 
difficult; causing the threads frequently to break, and, when joined, 
to form knots, which, in weaving, cannot pass through the reeds, and 
hence injure the beauty of the stuffs. But the mechanism mentioned 
of the traversing bar, prevents the threads lying over each other upon 
the reel, until after it has made many revolutions. Borgnis* says, that 
a thread cannot be found to occupy the same place it had at the com- 
mencement of the reeling, until after eight hundred and seventy-five 
turns of the reel. During this time, the exposure of the threads to the 
air, causes the first layer to dry completely, and hence no adhesion be- 
tween them can take place. The double irregularity of movement 
which takes place between the traversing bar, and the axle which 
moves it, forms al^o an internal motion, the effect of which is to imi- 
tate, in the unravelling of the cocoon, the same method employed by 
the silk caterpillar in forming it: for it is a fact, as before said, that 
the silk fibres of the cocoon are spun on it in zig-zags, like those 
formed by the silk reel, and, consequently, the operation of the reel is 
an imitation of nature, of which the industry of the caterpillar, in- 
structed by her, is the prototype. 

With the view of increasing the facility of drying the threads, the 
law of Piedmont requires the distance between the posts or supports 

* Traite de Mechanique, applique aux ArtSj vol. 7. 



14^ [ 175 ] 

of the axle and the traversing bar, to be <'two aliprand feet/' or three 
feet four inches and two-fifths, American measure.* 

Seven rotations of the reel, cause the traversing bar to move five- 
times from side to side. 

Dandolo says, it is a well known fact, that, of two reelers, each 
reeling 7^ pounds of cocoons of the same quality, one will obtain only 
six ounces and a half, or perhaps still less, while another will turn oil 
eight ounces 

Mr. Nouailie says, that ^*a woman at Novi, (Italy) experienced in 
the business, with the assistance of a girl to turn the reel and attend 
the fire under the caldron, can, with ease, reel ofi* one pound of silk, 
consisting of four or five cocoons, of the most perfect quality, in a day.t 

When a desired quantity of silk has been wound on the reel, pick 
off all the loose silk; then take a little handful of the coarse silk, and, 
after washing and squeezing it, dip it in cold water, and rub over the 
silk on the reel, stroking up also the silk with the palm of the hand: 
then turn the wheel with all possible velocity, with open windows, if 
the reeling has been done in a room, for about eight or ten minutes, to 
dry the silk effectually; which done, take off the reel, put it in a dry, 
airy place, but not in the sun. This is done to clean the silk and give 
it a gloss. X 

When one reel is taken off, another should be put on, that the work 
may not be delayed. Every winding apparatus must have two reels. 

In preparing the dupions for winding off, more are put into the basin 
at once than of the finest kind. They must be first well cleaned from 
the flos on their outsides. The water also must be boiling hot ; and, 
as the silk they yield is of a coarser quality than the other, and has a 
good deal of flos upon it, the person who turns the reel must take the 
opportunity, while the one who manages the basin is preparing the 
cocoons for winding, to clean and pick off the loose silk from that 
which is on the reel. The dupions intended for ordinary sewing silk, 
are to be wound from 15 to 20 cocoons. The rest may be wound as 
coarse as possible, that is, from 40 to 50 cocoons. These serve to cover 
and fill up coarse stuffs, and are likewise used for sewing silk. The 
good choquettes are to be w^ound according to the uses they are intended 
to be put to, but not finer than from seven to eight. The bad choquette 
maybe wound fronn 15 to 20. The sattiny cocoons, so called from 
their resemblance to satin, require water only moderately hot. The 
proper heat will be found by observing the manner in which the silk 
comes ofi" from the first of them which are put into the basin; and, as 
already said of cocoa ns generally, if it come ofi" thick, cold water must 

• This reg^ilation cons dtutes the 6th article of the Piedmont law of April 8, 1724, 
©lithe silk manufacture. The distance between the axle of the reel and the travers- 
ing" bar, in the appai'atus imported into Philadelphia, in 1826, by the writer, is fom- 
feet eig-ht inches. 

-j- Trans. Soc. Arts, Lond. vol. 6, p. 177. 

i This is the practice in France, according- to Mr. Stevenson; but the'l 8th article of 
the law of Piedmont, for the reg'ulation of the silk filature, expressly forbids the. 
smoothing" to be done in iiny way except with t!\e dry hand. — Nouvelle Kncy. M^^- 
thodique, article Soie. 



[ 175 ] 150 

Tbe added, until the proper temperature be attained. They must not 
be allowed to remain long in the water^ and there should be only a fe\V 
of these cocoons put in at a time. The water for the dupions and cho- 
quettes must be changed four times a day. 

0/ disbanding the silk from the reel, and tying it in skeins: pre- 
paration of the silk for use. 

One cannot consider attentively the manner in which the silk is 
jceeled from the cocoons, without observing that the single fibres of 
which the thread is composed are liable to suffer very different de- 
grees of stretching as they are wound from the cocoons.- If the co- 
coons are not well sorted, this different degree of extension will be the 
greater; and, even when they are sorted, they must still be subject to 
the same, because some are a little longer in the water than others,. and 
therefore give their silk easier; and also the weak latter ends of some 
cocoons wind off with the strong first part of others. 

The fibres being thus stretched unequally, will occasion (when the 
skein is taken from the reel too suddenly) those fibres which are most 
stretched, to contract more than the others, by which their union will 
be in some measure destroyed, and the thread composed of them ren- 
dered less compact and firm, the fibres appearing in several places dis- 
joined from one another. To remedy this, the skein should remain 
there six or eight hours, until the unequal extension which it suffered 
in winding, is, by the stretch which it undergoes on the reel, brought 
nearer to an equality; and, until the thread, by being well dried, has 
its fibres firmly united. 

When the skein is finished, there should be a mark tied to the end 
of the thread, otherwise it may be difficult to find it, if it mixes with 
the threads of the skein. 

When the skein is quite dry, proceed to disband it from the reel. 
First, squeeze it together all round, to loosen it upon the bars; then, 
with a thread made of the refuse silk, tie it on that place where it bore 
on the bars of the reel; then slide it off the reel, and make another 
tie on the part opposite to the one first made; after which, double it^ 
and tie it near each extremity, and then lay it by for use or sale, in a 
dry place. 

After the silk has been taken from the reel, it undergoes the follow- 
ing operations, to prepare it for putting in the loom: 

1st. It is wound from the skein upon bobbins, in a winding machine, 
(plate 3, fig. 1.) 2d. It is twisted on a mill, in the single thread — the 
twist being in the direction of from right to left, and very light. 3d. 
Two or more threads, thus twisted, are doubled, or drawn together 
through the fingers of a woman, who, at the same time, clears them, 
by taking out the slubs which may have been left in the silk by the 
negligence of the reeler. 4th. It is then thrown^ or organzined; that 
is, two or more threads are twisted together, either slack or hard, as 
the intended manufacture may require; but the twist is in an opposite 
direction to the first twist, and it is wound at thQ same time in skeins 



151 



[ r75 ] 



ypon a reel. 5th. The skeins are sorted according to their qualities, 
and then dyed. 

Before the silk is wound upon the bobbins, it must be prepared by- 
breaking the gum at the four corners of the skein, which lay upon the 
reel when wound off from the cocoons: this is done by rubbing the silk 
in those places between the fingers, until the threads are entirely sepa- 
rated. It must then be opened and spread out upon the wheel, and all 
the straggling ends cut short, and the gouts cleared away. 

The twisting of the compound thread is intended to unite the consti- 
tuent fibres more firmly than they can be by the gum alone. This is 
effected by the tramming machine, and the thread is called tram. It 
is used for the filling of stuffs, and for other purposes, and is, more or 
less, twisted according to the objects for which it is intended. The 
whole process, as at present commonly performed, is described in the 
preamble to Mr. Shenton's account of his improved tramming machine, 
to be given hereafter. His own apparatus will probably take the place 
of those hitherto in use. 

The annexed cut gives a view of an apparatus* to double and twist 
silk thread, which will be found very useful for domestic work. The 
operation of it is apparent from its construction. In place of working 
it with the bobbins placed between the two upright posts, they may 
be fixed upon their basis, as seen at a h. In this case the threads are 
conducted over a glass rod, on the top of the frame c d, and, from that 
to the spool e, placed above the box before the wheel. The axis of the 
wheel is not parallel to that of the spool; hence, the band passing over 
the wheel makes an acute angle with the axis of the spool. This ar- 
rangement secures the point of the spindle in a hole which receives it. 




To organzine silk, the thread is first twisted from right to left, as al- 
ready said. The silk, in twisting, turns off on other bobbins, some- 

* From the Nauvelle Encyclopaedic Mcthodique, article Soierie. 



[ 



175 ] . 15i 



what larger than the first. These bobbins are then to be exposed ta 
the steam of water, to which have been added two ounces of white, or 
still better, Castile soap two ounces, eighteen ounces of olive oil, and 
four or five pounds of wood ashes. The bobbins are to be put in a 
kettle, the bottom of which is pierced, and placed over the vessel of 
water, when it boils, with a cloth over it, and permitted to remain un- 
til the silk begins to swell and to detach from the bobbins. They are 
then to be taken away? and the second throw or twist given to the 
threads, from left to right. The combination of these two throws is 
called ihe. pearl, as the organzine looks like a string of small pearls or 
beads. It is easy to know if the second throw be perfect, by untwist- 
ing pa.rt of the organzine, and when it is open, on slackening the hand a 
little, each thread twists round itself in obedience to the first throw or 
twist. The water may be filled up as it wastes, but the ashes, soap, 
and oil, are to be renewed every day. 

The warping machine is described in Rees' Cyclopaedia, article Silk. 
The figure is in the 4th volume of plates of that work. 

The operation of organzining is described at large, in the explanation 
of the plate of the throwing machine. 

It is probable that Fanshaw's new invention, a sketch of which the 
writer has fortunately obtained from a very recent publication, will 
supersede much of the old complicated and expensive silk machinery.* 

F reparation of Vie waste silk. 

All the cocoons v^^bich have been pierced by the moths, those formed 
with holes at one or both ends, the light cocoons deemed improper for 
windhig, after the insects have been cut out, or threshed out, and the 
])ellicles remaining after winding off the silk, are to be collected; and if 
it be wished to retain the yellow color, they are put in a copper kettle 
with water, and tramped with the feet, turning the cocoons, and adding 
'a little fresh water from time to time, until it be found that the silk se- 
parates properly, upon tedding it out with the fingers. They are then 
tied up in a clean cloth, which is dipped in a clear stream, or water is 
poured on them, until it runs off without color, and spread out to 
ihy in the sun. Waste silk, intended to remain white, is to be treated 
in the following manner: 

Put the cocoons in a kettle of cold water, and let them lie twenty- 
four hours: then boil them in a copper kettle, adding a quarter of a 
pound of soapt for every pound of cocoons: when the soap is dissolved, 
tie up the cocoons in a clean cloth, put it in a kettle, and boil 
until the cocoons have become white. The water should entirely 
cover the cloth; then take out the cloth, and dip it in a clear stream, or 
pour water on it till it comes off' clear; then spread out tbe cocoons in 
the sun to dry. Mr. Stephenson, from whose paper these directions 
are taken, says the merchants prefer the silk cleaned by means of cold 

* Seethe explanation of the plates. 
. I The quality of the soap is of great consequence: brown soap must not be used. 



iS3 i; its 3 

water, to that which is boiled; alleging that the tirst loses less of its na- 
tural gum, and takes all manner of dies better than that which has been 
boiled. Before being spun, it is beaten with a rod upon a table, ac> 
cording to Reynaud. A hatter's bow would probably open and sepa- 
rate the fibres more effectually. Would it not then easily form into 
rolls by being passed through a cotton carding machine? 

On spinning inferior qualities of silk. 

In every filature, one or more reels are devoted to the spinning with 
the carrelet,* the inferior qualities of silk which cannot be spun on the 
common reel. The frame of the carrelet is longer than the silk reel, 
and has commonly awheel with four arms; but awheel with eight will 
do equal service, if two of them are moveable. The most essential 
difference in the frames is that of the head pieces. To these are adapt- 
ed a board which carries two or four bobbins. If there are only two, 
they are placed longitudinally, one above the other. If two threads 
are to be wound at a time, two other bobbins are added, and placed 
between the other two, in the same position. After the cocoons have 
been thrashed, a number of the fibres are collected to form a thread, 
which is passed through one of the two eyes of the board of the bobbins, 
of the same form as that of the traversing bar of the silk reel; then it 
is wound round both bobbins at the same time: being first carried to 
the first and returning round the second, it passes between them, giv- 
ing a twist to the part of the fibre which was extended from one bobbin 
to the other. This is the only twisting which these threads receive. 
The spinner then takes the same end and passes it through the eye of 
the traversing bar, and, attaching it to the wheel, it is set in motion. 
If it be wished to wind two skeins at one time, a second thread is pre- 
pared, and attached to the second pair of cylinders or bobbins, whence 
it is passed through the second eye of the traversing bar, and then fix- 
ed to the wheel at a proper distance from the first end. The silk has 
little uniformity, is of an obscure hue, and causes much waste in wind- 
7-ng. It is used for black stufifs of an inferior quality. 

Many manufacturers spin all their good silk, and that of an inferior 
quality, upon the carrelet, to make the thread called tram. This is 
slightly twisted, and is used for the filling of stufis, and for inferior silks 
for bonnets. One pound of cocoons is required to make one pound of 
this silk. This thread wastes in winding, but as it is slightly twisted, 
it parts with its gum more readily in boiling, -and takes a finer color 
than other threads. The dupions or double cocoonsj are also reeled ou 
the carrelet. They require to be immersed five or six minutes in hot 
water, to soften their firm texture. They are used to make sewing 
silk. 

* This apparatus is not mentioned in the French Encyclopxdia, nor in Borgni's re- 
cent work expressly devoted to the machines used in the arts. The most diligent in- 
quiry failed in obtaining- an account or draught of it. The notice given above of its use, 
is from the work before quoted by M. Reynaud. Any American would render a ser- 

".'ceto hip country bv importing the carrelet 

*^0 



i 175 ] 154 

The coarse tibptis, whicli are first taken off from the cocoons, (as 
directed in the passage on reeling,) and laid aside, are called in France.? 
the fantasie. Two pounds of cocoons commonly yield about four 
ounces and a half of this material, and sells in France for about a dollar 
and a quarter for two pounds. It is first boiled to deprive it of gum, 
then carded and spun. The best of it is used for the filling, after be- 
ing slightly twisted, and the inferior quality for the chain of stuffs. In 
Connecticut the coarse threads of the cocoons are made into a ball, 
then reeled, boiled in soap and water, rinsed, dried, cut into one and a 
balf inch pieces, then carded on cotton cards, and spun like wool or 
cotton. 

The thread called in France filoselle, is made in part from pointed 
cocoons, formed by feeble worms, or in cold seasons; the ends are 
slightly covered with silk, and, not being entirely close, the water en- 
ters and precipitates them, to the bottom. More or less are met with 
in every parcel. They are first deprived of their gum, by being im- 
mersed in plain water, or in soap and water, when the filoselle is wish- 
ed to be white, as before directed. When dried, this filoselle is spun 
upon the distaff in France, and practice enables the women to form an 
even and fine thread. 

The filoselle thread, made from the tow of the seed cocoons, is es- 
teemed of the first quality, giving no waste. It is spun upon the dis- 
taff, in France, but may be spun on the wheel. It is prepared as above 
directed, and is used to make stockings. The bourre, or waste, is the 
produce of the remains of the various manipulations which silk under- 
goes when manufacturing, as reeling, doubling, aftd milling. It is 
carded and spun upon the distaff, and sometimes on a wheel. * 

In France, the perforated and inferior cocoons, and the waste, are all 
mixed, and prepared by an apparatus called a devil, to make sewing 
silk. No description or draught of this could be obtained. The best 
threads of cocoons are reserved for silk fabrics. In Connecticut, fami- 
ly sewing silk is made from the good cocoons, from which the moths 
have escaped. The shrivelled case of the pupa, and any eggs which 
may have been deposited in the cocoon, are first taken out; they are 
then boiled in soap and water, rinsed, gently squeezed, dried, and spun 
on a foot wheel. Knitting thread for stockings and mits, is also made 
from them. They make the best sewing silk, by doubling the thready 
reeled fram good cocoons, and twisting it on the common wool-wheel. 
The skein is first boiled in soap and water, and it lies in a dish contain- 
ing enough soapsuds to keep it moist, while the process of twisting is 
going on. 

The Dpllowing communication on this subject, was made by Daniel 
Bulkeley, Esq. of Hampton, Connecticut, at the request of the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury : 

" The raw silk is first spooled on bobbins, the number of which is in 
proportion to the size of the intended thread from the first spinning; 
and, to facilitate the operation, they are put into warm water. The 

• Beynaud, p. 251. 265. 



OD 'i 17o J 

silk is again spooled, taking two or three bobbins, according tothesize 
of the intended thread. After being spun, it is reeled into skeins, each 
of forty yards in length, or half a knot of the country reel, as required 
by a law of the State. About twenty-five of these skeins are put to- 
gether, like a skein of cotton or woollen yarn. They are then boiled, 
adding a small quantity of soft soap, or ley of wood ashes, to cleanse 
them from the gum. They are then ready for dying. 

<* Silk twist is spun in the same manner, except that it is always of 
three cords. The winding of twist is done on a machine imported from 
England. 

<< We have a small establishment for spinning by water, with a ma- 
chine similar to a throstle frame of a cotton mill. The silk is first spool- 
ed by hand, on bobbins, which are placed on the top of the frame; the 
thread of raw silk passing from it under a wire, through a trough of 
water, then through rollers to the spindle. A single frame may con- 
tain from thirty to fifty spindles, and can be attended to by one per- 
son. The doubling and twisting may be done on the same frame, at the 
same time, by giving the bands to a part of the spindles a contrary di- 
rection. As many threads are put to a spindle as are required to make 
a thread of two or three cords. Silk spun in this way is far supe- 
rior to that done by hand. The machine will spin from two to 
three pounds in a day. A pound of silk, after being spun and cleansed, 
will weigh about ten ounces, and form one hundred and seventy skeins; 
the threads of sufficient size to sew woollens. If spun finer, it will make 
more. It increases little or nothing in weight when died. Silk is sold 
by the skein; one hundred of which will measure one-third more than 
half a pound of Italian or English silk of the same sized threads. One 
woman can make from twelve to fifteen pounds of raw silk, in a season 
of six weeks.'' 



EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
Plate I — Figure 1. 

Silk Reel of Piedmont. — The frame is 6 feet 5 inches long, 4^ hf 
3 inches thick. Distance of the upright posts A B, 4 feet 4i inches. 

C C. Length of the braces of the frame, 20 inches in the clear. 

D D. Legs of the frame, 2 feet 3^ inches long. E, shaft with a 
crown wheel at each end. The wheel F, 9 inches and -^^ in circum- 
ference, has 22 teeth. The wheel G, 10 inches and 2^^ in circum- 
ference, has 25 teeth. This shaft has an iron pin at each end, 1 inch 
long. The pin at the end G, plays in a hole in a shoulder near the top 
of the post 0, so as to enable the teeth of the wheel to catch and work 
in those of the pinion at the end of the axle of the reel, which axle, 
by means of a pin at the end, also plays in a hole in the post 0. The 
pin at the other end of the shaft, plays in a hole of the post K, and the 
teeth of the wheel F work in the pinion H, fixed on the top of the post 
K, by means of a burr screwed on the pin projecting from the post. 



[ 175 j 15^ 

and passing through the centre of the pinion. This pinion has 3o 
feet. On the top of the pinion H, is a crank, having a sweep of 4 
inches, and receives, on its top, the end of the iron wire-carrier of the 
traversing bar I. The crank is fixed half an inch from the commence- 
ment of the grooves of the pinion. This crank is shown in the figure 
H. I, a traversing bar, 2 feet 10 inches long, I of an inch wide, f 
of an inch thick, playing through the posts B K: height of the post, 
from the frame, 17 inches. 

L. An iron carrier of wire. No. 1, 18 inches long, fixed to the bar 
I, to work free by a screw. The other end is fixed by a burr, to the 
pin passing through the centre of the pinion H. 

M M. Two wire hooks or eyes, (rampins,) 7 inches and i apart, 
at equal distances from the ends of the traversing bar, through which 
they pass. The wires to the commencement of the turns of the hooks, 
are 5 inches in length. 

N. The reel; arms, 2 feet 2 inches and -^^ long in the clear; !§ inches 
widCj and -f^ of an inch thick: rails 20 inches I long, 2 inches broad, 
-^^ of an inch thick; two of the arms are jointed, to allow the skeins of 
silk to be taken off, when reeled and quite dry. There ought to be an 
extra reel to put in the place of the one taken off, to prevent the work 
stopping. 

0. Upright support for the axle of the reel, on the ends of which 
the pinion is fixed, to work with the wheel G, at the end of the shaft 
E. The pinion of the axle has 22 teeth. P. An iron plate with four 
holes, 12 inches long, slightly hollowed, projecting 3^ inches from the 
bar: the outside holes are 3 inches from the ends; from the centre of 
one hole to that of the next, f of an inch. Distance from the two in- 
side and nearest holes, 4 inches and r?^. 

Q. The copper basin to contain hot water, in which the cocoons are 
immersed, when reeling off. It is 18 inches long, 1 foot broad, and 
4i inches deep. 

R. The furnace to contain charcoal, to keep the water hot. 

Distance from the centre of the posts A B, and K, 36 inches and 
a half. Circumference of the reel 6 feet 11 inches. 

Distance from the top of one arm, where it enters the rail, to another 
arm, 18i inches. 

From the axle of the reel and the traversing bar I, four feet eight 
inches. 

Figure 2 shows the arrangement of the frames for rearing the silk 
worms, in Dandolo's laboratory. 

Figure 3. A semicircular chopper with two blades. 

Figure 4. Pierced box to place the moths in. See p. 109, 110. 

Figure 5. Frame or tressel to be covered with a cloth, on which the 
moths are to lay their eggs. 

Figure 6. Rope frame to place the cloths on, containing the eggs to 
preserve them until the spring. 

Figure 7. Hook to remove the silkworms, when necessary. 



157 [ 175 >) 

Plate 2d — Figure 1 axp 'z. 

Indigo Cradle. — The end of the upright, lever is attached to a cross 
bar, the ends of which play in a bearing fixed on each side of the cradle, 
and secured by screws. 

From near the ends of the bar, a claw extends to, and embraces, the 
journals, or arbors, at each end of the middle roller, lying on the bot- 
tom of the cradle; the ends of the claws are divided for this purpose, 
and permit the journals to play in them. 

The roller is 12 inches long, and 4i diameter. There are two other 
rollers, each a little longer, lying loose, and moved by the one fixed to 
the claw. The whole is of cast iron. 

Mr. Johnson, at the Foundry, Broad-street, Philadelphia, casts 
these indigo cradles. Twenty pounds of indigo are put in water, in 
the cradle, over night, and then ground, either by hand or other pow- 
er, until the indigo is reduced to the state of thick cream, and perfect- 
ly smooth. 

Plate 2d — Figure 3 and 4. 

A frame filled with split rattans, used by Messrs. Terhoeven, of 
Philadelphia county, to feed silkworms on. 

The ends of the rattans are put through holes in the frames, and fast- 
ened by wooden pins, in the manner of rattan chair-bottoms. The rat- 
tans are crossed by iron wires, and woven in by fine wire, rolled round 
small pieces of wooden rod. 

Fig. 4. A frame used by Messrs. Terhoeven, in preference to bushes, 
for the worms to form their cocoons in. It is made of four slips of 
wood, half an inch thick, and as long as the feeding frames are broad. 
Their ends are pointed, and pass through two pieces of wood, half an 
inch thick, four inches high, and three broad. Under the whole 
length of the frame is a thin strip of board, nailed to the end pieces. 
When one of these frames is filled with cocoons, it must be removed^ 
and an empty one put in its place. 

Plate 2d — Figure 5. 

SkolVs improved Silk Loom. — A A, the sills. B B, the breast rolls. 
C, the cut tree. D D, theuprights. E, the burdown. F, thebatton. 
G, the reeds. H, harness. I, the breast rolls. K, the cheese. L, 
the gibbet. M, treadles. N, tumblers. 0, short counter meshes. 
P, long counter meshes. Q, the porry. R R, cane roll posts. S, cane 
rolls. T, the weight bar and weight. N N, counter weights. W, 
the breaking rod. X X, cross rods. 

The several advantages of this loom are stated by Mr. Sholl to con- 
sist in the following particulars: 1st. It is not liable to unsquare, and 
yet is more easily moved than the old loom. 2d. It admits more light 
than the common looms to the workman. 3d. As the cane roll posts 
are fixed to the floor by screws, the porry may be made of any length. 



[ 175 ] 158 

by only screwing the cane roll posts nearer, or further from, the breast 
roll. 4. The gibbet is formed in the loom, and therefore the trou- 
ble of fixing it is prevented. 5. The bridge of the battons are not nail- 
ed to the block, but iron pins are put in the block, and partly go through 
the bridge, fastened with glue, so that the silk cannot be injured as 
formerly. 6. The battons rise as the work rises, and keep more true 
than in the old looms. Trans. Soc, •drts, London, for 1790. 

Plate 3d. — Figure 1. 

Winding Reel, — To wind the silk off from the skeins, in which it 
is imported or made up, upon wooden bobbins. 

The reel figured, is calculated to wind six threads at once, but, by in- 
creasing the length, it may be made to receive any number. 

Each of the skeins is extended upon a slight reel A A, called a swift: 
it is composed of four small rods fixed in an axis, and small bands of 
string are stretched between the arms to receive the skein; but, at the 
same time, the bands admit of sliding to a greater or less distance from the 
centre, so as to increase the effective diameter of the reel according to the 
size of the skein ; because the skeins which come from different coun- 
tries, vary in size, being generally an exact yard, or other similar mea- 
sure of the country where the silks are produced. 

The swifts are supported upon iron pivots, upon which they turn 
freely when the silk is drawn off from them ; but, in order to cause the 
thread to draw with a gentle force, a looped piece of string or wire is 
hung upon the axis withinside the reel, and a small leaden weight e be- 
ing attached to it, will cause a sufficient friction. 

B B are the bobbins which draw off the threads; they are received in 
the frame, and are turned by means of a wheel beneath each; the bob- 
bin having a small roller upon the end of it, which bears by its weight 
upon the circumference of the wheel, and the bobbin is thereby put in 
motion to draw off the silk from the twist. 

D is the layer, a small light rod of wood, which has a wire eye fix- 
ed into it, opposite to each bobbin, so as to conduct the thread upon; and, 
as the layer moves constantly backwards and forwards, the thread is 
regularly spread upon the length of the bobbin. The motion of the 
layer is produced by a crank fixed upon the end of a cross spindle, E, 
which is turned by means of a pair of bevelled wheels from the end of 
the horizontal axle upon which the wheels for turning all the bobbins 
are fixed. These winding machines are usually situated in the top 
building of a silk mill, g(when water or steam power are used,) the 
frame being made of great length, and also double, to contain a row of 
bobbins and swifts at the back as well as in front. The winding ma- 
chines require the constant attention of children to mend the ends or 
threads which are broken, or, when they are exhausted, to replace them 
by putting new skeins upon the swifts. When the bobbins are filled, 
they are taken away, by only lifting them out of their frame, and 
fresh ones are put in their places. 



ib^ I ltd 2 

Plate 8d — Figure 2. 

A throwsting machine* intended to be worked by hand. B is the 
handle. It is fixed on the spindle R, which carries a wheel D, to give 
motion to a pinion upon the upper end of a vertical axle E; this, at the 
lower end, has a drum or wheel F, to receive an endless strap or barfd 
a a, which encompasses the oval frame G, and gives motion to all the 
spindles at once. 

The spindles b b are placed perpendicularly in the frame G H; their 
points resting in small holes, in pieces of glass which are let into the 
oval plank G, and'the spindles are, also, received in collars affixed to an 
oval frame H, which is supported from the plank G by blocks of wood: 
fl?and a are small rollers, supported in the frame G H in a similar man- 
ner to the spindles. Their use is to confine the strap a to press against 
the rollers of the spindles with sufficient force to keep them all in 
motion. 

The thread is taken up as fast as it is twisted by a reel K, which is 
turned by a wheel h and a pinion i upon the end of the principal spin- 
dle R. The threads are guided by passing through wire eyes fixed in 
an oval from L, which is supported in the frame of the machine by a 
single bar or rail / /; and this has a regular traversing motion backwards 
and forwards, by means of a crank or eccentric pin k, fixed in a small 
cog wheel, which is turned by a pinion upon the vertical axis E: the 
opposite end of the rail /, is supported upon a roller to make it move 
easily. By this means the guides are in constant motion, and lay the 
threads regularly upon the reel k, when it turns round and gathers up 
the silk upon it, as shown in the figure. 

One of the spindles is shown at r, without a bobbin, but all the 
others are represented as being mounted, and in action. A bobbin is 
filled upon each spindle, by the hole through it being adapted to the 
conical form of the spindle, but in such a manner that the bobbin is 
at liberty to turn freely round upon the spindle. A piece of hard 
wood is stuck fast upon each spindle just above the bobbin, and has a 
small pin entering into a hole in the top of the spindle, so as to oblige 
it to revolve with the spindle. This piece of wood has the wire flyer 
b fixed to it: the flyer is formed into eyes at the two extremities; one 
is turned down, so as to stand opposite the middle of the bobbin e, and 
the other arm b is bent upwards, so that the eye is exactly over the 
centre of the spindle, and at a height of some inches above the top 
of the spindle. 

The thread from the bobbin e, is passed through both eyes of this 
wire, and must evidently receive a twist when the spindle is turned; 
and at the same time by drawing up the thread through the upper eye 
b of the flyer, it will turn the bobbin round and unwind therefrom. 

* This 19 taken from Rees'a Cyclopsedia, and is precisely the same as that repit- 
sented in the French *' Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," printed atNeufchatel, 1765^ 
and in the Nouvelle Encyclopsedie Methodique, Paris, i786. The figures of the vari- 
ous parts, and the elevation of the machine, fill two folio pages. In France it is called 
an "ovale." 



[ 175 ] 160 

The rate at which the thread is drawn off from the bobbin, compar- 
ed with the number of revolutions which the flyers make in the same 
time, determines the twist to be hard or soft, and this circumstance is 
regulated by the proportion of the wheel h to the pinion z, from which 
it receives motion; and these can be changed when it is required to 
spin different kinds of silk. The operation of the machine is very 
•simple: the bobbins filled with silk in the winding machine, are put 
loose upon the spindles at e, and the flyers are stuck fast upon the 
stop of the spindles, the threads are conducted through the eyes of the 
iiyers h, and of the layers L, and are then made fast to the reel K; 
upon which it will be seen, that there are double the number of skeins 
to that of the spindles represented, because one half of the nurnber of 
spindles is on the opposite side of the oval frame, so that they are hid- 
den. With this preparation, the machine is put in motion, and con- 
tinues to spin the threads by the motion of the flyers, and to draw 
them off gradually from the bobbins until the skeins upon the reel are 
made up to the requisite lengths. This is known by a train wheel 
work atn op, consisting of a pinion n, fixed upon the principal spin 
die R, turning a wheel o, which has a pinion fixed to it, and turning a 
larger wheel />; this has another wheel upon its spindle, with a pin 
fixed in it, which, at every revolution, raises a hammer, and strikes 
upon a bell s, to inform the attendant that the skeins are made up to 
a proper length. When this machine is employed for the first opera- 
tion of twisting the organzine, the wheel h must be larger, and the 
pinion i smaller than is represented, in order that the reel K may be 
turned slowly, and the threads will thereby receive a stronger and 
closer twist. Also, the handle B is turned in an opposite direction to 
that in which it must move for the final throwing off the two or three 
twisted threads together: and, as it must also move for twisting the 
raw threads together for the warp of silk stuffs, and for weaving stock- 
ings, this reverse movement makes no alteration in the machine, except 
that it will give twist in a contrary direction; for it is always necessary, 
when two or more twisted threads are combined by twisting, that the 
twist of the original thread shall be in an opposite direction to that 
twist which unites them into one thread, in the same manner as for 
making ropes: organzine silk being in fact small rope, and stocking 
silk or warp being only yarn. The silk intended to be died is previ- 
ously twisted very slightly in this machine; and of course in that di- 
rection which will suit the purpose for which it is ultimately intended; 
viz: whether for yarn or organzine. 

Figure 3 represents a single spindle of a thro wsting machine, G and 
H represent portions of the rails or circles of the stage which supports 
the spindle, and « a is a part of the rim of the great wheel of the cen- 
tral axle. This wheel is not made in segments, but is made very truly 
circular, and covered with leather on the edge, that it may act with 
more force to turn the roller t of the spindle. The point of the spin- 
dle rests in a glass lap, supported by the rail G, and the roller f is al- 
ways made to press against the rim of the great wheel « «, by a small 
^ever d, and a string, which, after turning over a pullev, has th^ weight 



161 [ 175 3 

c made (ast to it, to press the spindle always towards the wheel. In 
this machine the thread is taken up by a bobbin K, is put into a frame 
m^ wiiich moves on pivots, and by a weight n is pressed down, so as 
\.o make the bobbin bear upon the edge of the wheel A, which is kept 
in constant and regular motion by means of wheel work, which cannot 
be well described^ 

The intention is that the action of the wheel A, to turn the bobbin, 
being communicated by pressure against the part upon which the silk 
is to wind, will be constant, and will not drav/ more when the bobbin 
is large and full, or less when it is empty, as must be the case when 
the motion is given to the axis of the bobbin. 

After the silk is twisted in a riaht hand direction, if it be intended 
for yarn or for dying; or in a left hand direction if it be prepared for 
organzine, it must be wound on fresh bobbins, with two or three 
threads together, preparatory to twisting them into one thread. This 
is done by women, who with hand v/heels wind the threads from two 
or three large bobbins, upon which the silk is gathered instead of the 
reels, and assemble them two or three together, upon another bobbin of a 
proper size to be returned to the twisting mill. Machines are now in 
use for winding two or three threads together. 

This operation is slightly represented and described in Rees's Cy- 
clopaedia, a work which has a general circulation in the United States. 

The bobbins being filled with double or triple threads, are carried 
back to the throwsting machine, and are there twisted together: the 
manner of doing which does not diiler from the operation before de- 
scribed. 

In this second operation, the silk is taken up by reels instead of 
bobbins, and is thus made into skeins. The degree of twist varies 
with the purpose for which the silk is intended, and the wheels which 
give motion to the reels, are for this purpose adapted to the degree of 
twist which the silk is desired to have. The silk being spun, requires 
only the preparation of boiling, to discharge the gum, and to render 
the silk fit to receive the die. Figures 4 and 5 represent the zig-zag man- 
ner in which the silkworm spins the fibres of which the cocoon is 
formed. Figure 5 show^s how the worm after working for some time 
in one part, will suddenly extend the silk fibre, and begin at another 
quarter. 

IMPROVED ENGINE FOR TRAMMING SILK.^ 

By W. V. Shenton, of Winchester. 

Transactions of the Society of Arts, London, Vol. 41, p. 169, 1823. 
[t/^ silver medal was granted for this invention.'] 

The only preparation which the raw silk imported into England 
has previously undergone, is that of being wound off the cocoons; 

* One of these machinery, imported by the Secretary of the Treasury, is now in h^a 
office. 

91 



[ 175 3 162 

but as the filament of the srikworca is of cytrcnio temiity, it i^ neces- 
8ary, in the winding, to conjoin the filamcnt^i of from five to seven co- 
coons, in order to obtain a single thread of the requisite staple. The 
raw silk, thus composed, is still, however, too slender for the })urposejT 
of manufacture; and accordingly, the first process which it undergoes, 
is that of uniting two, three, or four threads into one, previously to 
giving it that kind of twist which is technically termed organzining. 

The machine by which the union of the required number of threads 
is effected, is denominated a tramming engine, and admits of a considera- 
ble variety of structure: but the conditions absolutely essential in all, 
are the following: lirst,^that the silk may ])ass off easily, and without 
entangling, from the delivering bobbins: secondly, that a small and 
equal degree of tension be applied to the threads as they pass from the~ 
delivering bobbins, to the receiving one, so that the compound threads 
shall be perfectly even ; which obviously would not be the case, if one 
of the component threads were quite loose, while the others were drawn 
straight; thirdly, that the receiving bobbin ceases to revolve as soon as 
any one of the component threads happens to break — an accident which 
not unfrequently occurs; as, without such contrivance, a thread v/oulcl 
be produced of variabfe thickness, from the casual omission of one or 
more of the component threads. 

The operation af tramming^ in some of the best constructed mills, is 
performed in the following manner: 

The delivering bobbins (varying in number from two to four, accord- 
ing to the intended thickness of the component thread) are placed upon 
as many vertical spindles, the vertical position allowing the threads to 
quit the bobbins without any motion or revolution of the bobbins them- 
selves. Some way above the bobbins, the threads pass singly betv/eeii 
two horizontal slips of cloth or felt, which, by their friction, give at 
the- same time a certain degree of tension to the threads, and clear them 
from any du«t or other light matter. Each thread then passes throu-gli- 
the eye of its own drop-wire, whence they all converge and unite in 
the eye of the guider, from which the compound thread is distributed 
on the surface of the receiving bobbin as it revolves. Each drop-wire 
consists of a piece of wire turned up, so as to form a right angle, of. 
which the vertical leg is. about tvro inches long, and is terminated by 
an eye through which the thread passes; and the horizontal leg isabout 
four inches long, terminating likewise in an eye, through which passes 
a pin, connecting all the four drop-wires, and forming a pivot, on which- 
each is capable of moving freely. Each thread, in passing through 
the eye of its drop-wire, slips down a little, and, being in a state of mode- 
rate tension, supports it at the elevation of half an inch or more above 
the position to which it would otherwise descend. When, therefore, 
a thread breaks, its drop-wire immediately falls, and strikes on the 
edge of a wire-frame, moving on a horizontal pivot, and so adjusted 
that the weight of the drop-wire immediately inclines downwards that 
side which it touches, and consequently raises the opposite side. To 
this opposite side a tail of wire is attached, which, when raised, catches 
on a kind of ratchet-wheel, fixed on the same spindle as the receiving. 



1G3 C 175 3 

bobbin, and consequently stops it. The broken thread being repair- 
ed, is again passed through the eye of the drop-wire, and supports it 
above the frame; the opposite end of the frame then becomes prepon- 
derant; the tai], or stop, descends out of the way of the ratchet-wheel, 
and the revolution of the receiving bobbin immediately recommences. 

This apparatus is very simple and efficacious, but is liable to two in- 
conveniences; first, that the thread usually breaks close to the pieces 
of clotli by which it is compressed, and some trouble and loss of time 
are occasioned in drawing the thread out previous to tying it: second- 
ly, that, when a smaller number of threads than four are trammed, the 
vacant drop-wires must be removed, otherwise their unsupported 
weight would, as above described, throw" up the stop, and prevent the 
revolution of the receiving bobbin. 

The contrivance by whicli Mr. Shenton effects the operation of tram- 
ming, and avoids the above-mentioned inconveniences, will be evident 
by referring to plate IV, of which figure 1 is an end view, and figure 2 
a bird's-eye view of his machine — the same letters of reference denoting 
the same parts in all the figures; a «, the axis which gives motion to the 
receiving bobbins /*/, by means of wooden rollers dd; they are mxade 
of any required length to suit a continued series of succeeding bobbins, 
with a roller under each; the wooden axis w^hich carries the receiving 
bobbin, has a leaden roller e fixed on it, which receives motion by mere 
contact, on account of its weight. This axis is shown separate in 
figure 3; p p are two pins fixed in the leaden roller e ; s, another pin, 
or hook, which holds on tlie bobbin by hooking under the staple ^, of 
the bobbin figures 3 and 4. As the receiving bobbin revolves, it draws 
the threads from tv^^o, three, or four bobbin ^ ^ ^ ^, as previously de- 
termined; and in order to lessen the friction of these bobbins, which 
are fitted on wooden pins u it ic u, the pins are perforated, and ride 
upon a wire r, and the bottom of these pins, and the loops which hold 
the wires, are rounded: leaving just friction enough to keep the threads 
extended. They are shown separate in figure 5. Now should any 
one of these threads break, it is reauisite that the receiving bobbin 
should immediately stop; for this purpose, a crank-wire m, with a 
ketch 72, and a fixed crank o, is placed near each roller; on this, four 
light drop-wires kkk k swing freely, and they have eyes to hang on 
the threads, which are their only suppori;: these wires are shown a 
quarter their real size in figure 6. Now^, should either of the threads 
break, the drop-wdre which hung on it, w^ould fall on the crank o, and 
cause the wire m to revolve, and bring the catch n forwards from its 
position, figure 8, to lay hold of the pin 7? of the roller e, as shown in 
figure 7, and stop it immediately; then, as soon as the thread is mend- 
ed, the thumb is laid on the t^ils w of the drop-wires, to bring up the 
fallen one; the thread is then put in the eye, and the catch is withdrawn 
by turning back the end 7n of the crank wire, and the work goes on. 
There are tw^o spare notches x x io lay the bobbin in, while joining 
the thread, that it may be out of geer, and move freely till set right by 
hand. 

Now, the silk threads, on leaving the bobbins^ ^^^, pass separatelj'- 



I 175 3 lb4 

over a glass rod i, aud through the eyes of the drop-wires, and thew 
gather together in passing thi-ough tlie eye of the guide-wire /. In 
order to distribute equally over the bobbins the silk threads thus ga- 
thered together, an alternating motion is given to the sliding bar cc, 
which carries the guide-wires /, by means of a pin r, working in an 
oblique or spiral groove in the block by fixed on the end of the axis a; 
and the obliquily of this groove corresponds with the length the silk 
is to be distributed on tlic bobbin, and therefore causes the sliding 
bar to move to and fro that length every turn of the wooden roller, or 
every four turns of the bobbin- — the bobbin rollers being one quarter 
the size of the v/ooden rollers ^fif. 

The bars h hh h, which support the supplying bobbins, are so placed 
as to make the bobbins stand at right angles with the thread when it 
passes from their middle to the glass rod. It is best to m.ake the four 
eyes of the drop-wires lie parallel to the glass rod, as their vibrations 
on the threads will be more equal. 

Figs. 8 and 9 show the tinned iron facings which are coiled round 
ander the bars aty, to support the crank- wire. 

Fig. 10 shows how the guide-wires are bent and fixed in the sliding 
bar. 

qq, Fig. 2, are two sliding wires: it will be seen that where four 
threads are tramming, it is drawn back; but where two threads are 
tramming, it is pushed in to support the two drop- wires that are out of 
use, and prevent their acting on the crank-wire. 

Fig. 11 shows the manner of riveting the wooden rollers on the 
axis, by cutting up a burr with a chisel on the angles ^z. 

Fig. 1 and 2 are a guard-rail. 

Fig. 1 and 2 are one-sixth, the others are one- fourth the real size. 

Improvement in the Silk Weaver^ s Draw Boy. — By ISir. E. Rich^ 

arclsy of Bethnal Green. 

Trans. Soc. Arts, London, vol. 40, p. 185. 

In weaving plain goods, of every description, composed of silk> 
wool, hemp, cotton, or flax, the threads composing the warp are form- 
ed into two sets: the 1st, 3d, 5th, &c. forming one division, and the 
alternate ones, the 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. forming the other: each set is 
alternately raised and depressed, and at every crossing of the sets, the 
shuttle, containing a spindle full of thread, is shot, or thrown from 
one hand to the other, distributing the thread in its passage, in front 
of every intersection of the threads that compose the warp; but in 
figured sifc, the threads of the warp are formed into more divisions 
than two — the number varying according to the pattern; and in order 
^hat each division may be raised or depressed with the necessary accu- 
racy, each thread of the warp is passed through a loop in a vertic^ 
cord, furnished with a weight at bottom, to keep it properly stretchedj 
and passing over a support at top. These vertical cords are called the 
monturc, and are collected into as many sets or lashes as the pattern 
,?^cquiresj it being understood tliat the cords of those 'threads which 



165 [ 175 ] 

are to be raised or lowered together, are to be included in the same 
lask The number of lashes required for very simple patterns, on very, 
narrow silks, is considerable, amounting to forty, sixty, or more. It 
is obviously, therefore, in these cases, impossible to give motion to the 
warp, by attaching a treadle to each lash. The way in which the 
lashes were actually raised, was to pass the end of each lash through a 
hole in a horizontal board, to fix to the lash a piece of wood like a 
bell-pull, and to employ a boy (thence called a draw-boy) in pulling or 
drawing down each lash in succession, so that the weaver had only to 
throw the shuttle and give directions to his boy. 

Each cord of a lash having a weight hung to it, the aggregate weight 
of the whole lash is considerable, so that the la!)or incurred by the 
tlraw-boy was great, and considerable dexterity (the result alone of 
long practice) was required to prevent mistakes, and much loss of 
time. Hence the weavers were very dependant on their draw-boys, 
and the idleness or illness of one of them threw the weaver, for the 
time, out of work. 

Various ineffectual attempts had been made to supersede the living 
draw-boy by machinery, but with little if any success, till Mr. Duff 
brought forward an engine for the purpose, which was rewarded by 
the Society of Arts in London, in ISIO. Mr. Duff's engine, by means 
of a very ingenious contrivance, enables the weaver, by pressing al- 
ternately on two pair of treadles, to produce the regular elevation and 
depression of the lashes without the assistance of the boy. 

The weight of the lashes, and the friction of the machine being con- 
siderable, it was necessary to adjust, accordingly, the length of the 
levers or treadles b}:^ which it was put in motion; in consequence of 
which, a tread of ten inches was thought necessary, that the weaver 
might not be oppressed by the weight. 

It was soon, however, found, in practice, that the exertion of rais- 
ing the feet ten inches for every motion of the treadle, was excessively 
fatiguing to the weaver, and apparently occasioned a predisposition to 
rupture, so that the machine came only into very limited use. 

About two or three years ago, Mr. Jones, since dead, (an engine 
maker) attempted to shorten the tread, hy fixing on the axis of the 
driving wheel two cranks, each about two thirds of the length of the 
radius of the wheel; but the m.echanical disadvantage at which they 
worked, and the manner in which they were connected with the trea- 
dles, increased the weight and friction so disproportionately to the ad- 
vantage gained by shortening the tread, as- to render it wholly inap- 
plicable in practice. 

About last Christmas, (1822) Mr. Hughes, a weaver, fixed a small 
grooved wheel on the axis of the driving wheel, and connected it to 
the treadles by means of two cords passing over pulleys. It might be 
supposed that any advantage thus gained by shortening the tread, 
would be counterbalanced by the increased weight required to be over- 
come. This, however, is not practically the case. When the thigh 
of the weaver is raised, so as to be nearly horizontal, as necessarily 
liappens at the commencement of a tread ten inches in height, the 



[ 175 ] 166 

muscular force which can Ijc t^xerlcd hy a given cffoil, is far iuicrior 
to that which an equal ellbrt will produce in a tread of five inches; 
and hence, although the weight to be raised increases in proportion 
to the difference between the diameters of the driving wheel, and of 
the small wheel or pinion, yet the muscular advantage gained nearly 
counterbalances this increase of weight. 

A real practical advantage, therefore, resulted from Hughes's in- 
vention, (although the mechanism employed is unnecessarily compli- 
cated, and not judiciously disposed,) since, by means of it, work which 
could not before be wrought by the machine, may now be performed 
by it. 

In order to relieve the weaver still farther, by diminishing the 
weight on the treadle, and thus adapting the machine to heavier pat- 
terns and wider silks, Mr. Richards, in lS20j attached to the pro- 
longed axis of the machine, an arm, carrying a leaden weight of such 
a magnitude as to counterbalance that of the lashes. The practical 
advantage of this contrivance, was, however, diminished by the 
weight being fixed in an inconvenient situation, and being liable to 
jar the machine; in consequence of which, in March, 18.21, Mr. 
Hughes removed it from its original place, and fixed it within the 
frame, on one of the driving wheels. A still further improvement in 
its position, was subsequently made by Mr. Richards, who has pro- 
longed the axis of the driving wheel, giving it the form of a quadri- 
lateral prism, and, on any part of this axis, which local circumstances 
may point out as most convenient, the counter weight may be fixed 
by screws farther from, or nearer to, the centre of motion, according 
to the magnitude of the weight required to be counterpoised. 

In order to render the above-mentioned improvement more intelli- 
gible, not only to the silk weaver, but to the public in general, it has 
been thought fit to give a representation, showing the connexion of 
the immediate subject of reward, with the wdiole apparatus for weav- 
ing silks as now employed in Spitalfields. The Committee of Corres- 
pondence and Papers were the more readily induced to adopt this 
measure, as, hitherto, no correct representation of the silk-loom and 
jdraw-boy had been published. 



JReferences to the engravings of a Silk Loom for weaving figured 
silky ivilh Mr. Richard^ s vmprovcinents on the Draw-Boy. 

PLATE v. 

Fig. 1 represents a cross-section of the draw-boy at the dotted line 
ffl a, lig. 2, with a side view of the loom, &c. 

Fig. 2 is a section of the loom at the dotted line h b, fig. 1, toge- 
ther with a side view of the draw-boy. 

Fig. 3 is a plan of the draw-boy, with part of its frame. 

Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section of the axle, &c. of the draw-boy. 



167 [ 175 3 

Fig. 5 is a cross-section of the axle of the draw-boy and figure box. 
Figures 1 and 2 are drawn to a scale of three-fourths of an inch to a 
foot; and figures 3, 4, and 5, to a scale of two inches to a foot. 

The same letters of reference refer to the same parts in each figure. 
AAA is the frame of the loom; B, the roll or beam on which the 
v^^arp is put; C, the cloth or breast roll; D D, the lay or bottom; E, 
the reed; F F, a frame which supports and regulates the table of mul- 
lets; G^, the table, which consists of a number of thin bars, fixed in a 
frame nearly in a vertical position, but which can be elevated or in- 
clined at pleasure, by a hoop H. Between each of these thin small 
bars, are placed one, two, three, or more, small mullets or pulleys c cc. 
over which pass the horizontal strings or tail d d d, by which the 
lambs or beadles II, J J, and K K, are suspended. 

To weave plain cloth, only two leaves of beadles are really neces- 
sar}?-; but, in fine webs, where many threads are contained in the warp, 
the number of headles required in one shaft, would be so great, that 
tbey would be crowded together, which would cause unnecessary 
friction, and strain the warp. For this reason, a greater number of 
leaves is used in weaving figured silks, &c. The number of these 
leaves is so great, that the shafts on which the headles are placed, are 
obliged to be arranged in two, three, or more stages, one above an- 
other, as shown in figures 1 and 2, at 1 1, J J, KK; so that, when the 
lowest set of beadle shafts 1 1, are raised to make the sheds, or opening 
in tlie warp, through which the shuttle passes, they are in the situa- 
tion of those at / i, and do not rise so high as to interfere with those 
at J J; and, wben those at J J are raised ^.ojj, they do not interfere 
with those at K K; and those at K K will be raised to kJc. So, by this 
arrangement, there will be three times the number of the leaves o? 
headles, in nearly the same space, as when placed on the same level. 

To each of the lower treadle shafts, are suspended three long, 
fimall leaden weights / / /, so as to keep the treadles straight and 
perpendicular. The strings d d d, which suspend the treadles, arc 
extended across the room, and are made fast to a horizontal rod L.; 
which is also fixed by cords to the side of the room. M is a bar or 
roll, which is suspended from the ceiling of the room, to support the 
string or tail d d, &c. N is another roll, which is, itself, supported 
{>y a frame from the upper part of the loom, and supports the strings 
d d, &c., when the depression is made on them by the action of thn 
foot on the treadles 0, P P, Q Q, from which the motion is com- 
municated to the draw-boy, &c. R R is the frame of the draw-boy, 
which must be fixed to the floor. 

S is a square wooden bar or axle of the draw-boy, mounted so as to 
turn backwards and forwards on two screwed centres e c, figures 2, 3, 
4, fixed in the ends of the frame R R. There are also fixed to each 
end of the frame R R, and concentric to the axis of tlic screwed cen- 
tres e c, a cylindrical ring m and ?^, figures 3, 4, of brass or iron. One 
end of each ring is made flat, with an internal flanch, for fixing it to the. 
end of the frame, and the other ends of the rings are formed into in- 
clined planes. On the upper side of the 9xle S are inserted, in two 



i 175 ] 168 

parallel grooves, two wootlcn racks/" and f^, figure S, so a6 to slide ea-* 
sily backwards and forwards. The upper edges of the racks have 
tfeeth similar to those of saws, but the inclined side of the teeth, in each 
rack, is in contrary directions. To one end of each rack is fixed a 
piece of brass o* and/>, and rounded off on the end, so as to act smooth- 
ly on the circularly inclined planes m and n. Beneath the racks are 
concealed two spiral springs h h — the action of which tends to press 
the brass ends of the racks against the inclined planes m and n. T is 
iho, draw-boy or bow, seen best in figure 5, vv^hich consists of a semicir- 
cular piece of iron or brass, with a groove in the periphery, like a pul- 
ley; and each of its ends is divided, so as to form cleft hooks or claws, 
which clip the strings or lashes above the knots r r; so that, when the 
axle S is made to vibrate, the hooks q q first draw a lash or string on 
one side, and then on the other, alternately. 

The draw-boy, or semicircle T, is fixed en a carriage U, called the 
figure box, which slides easily upon the axle S, and has two clicks, or 
catches s and t, in the inside of the box, with a string pressing on the 
upper side of each, and causing the clicks to act on the teeth of the 
racks, /'and^. V is a roller, supported by its pivots, on the upper 
side of the carriage U, having the two pins, or levers ti and v, fixed in 
it, opposite to each other, and projecting over the ends of clicks that 
act on the racks; on the upper side of each click, is fixed a hook or sta- 
ple, which connects the clicks to the levers u and v, so that when the 
lever u is depressed, the click -s- is at liberty to act on the teeth of the 
racky, and at the same instant, the lever will be raised, and disengage 
the click t irovo. the rack^; and when the lever v is depressed, the 
click t will be at liberty to act on the teeth of the rack g, and the click 
s will be disengaged from the rack /"; consequently, only one of the 
clicks can act on the racks at the same time. The roller V, is kept in 
either situation, by the action of a spring I, figures 3 4, fixed on the upper 
side of the figure box, or carriage U, and having a double inclined plane 
on the under side of it, near the point; the middle of which is situated 
over the pivot in the end of the roller V, and it acts on a small pin. 
which is fixed in the end of the roller, and on the upper side, and also 
over the centre of the pivot, when the lever u and v are horizontal; con- 
sequently when the lever u is depressed, the pin, in the end of the roll- 
er, will be turned in the same direction, and the inclined plane, near- 
f^st the point of the spring I, will retain it in that situation, till the lever 
V is depressed, which will cause the pin to raise the spring 3, and pass to 
t-hc other side of the inclined plane, when it will again be detained till the 
carriage has arrived at the other end of the axle S. On the under side 
of the roller V, and at right angles to the levers u and v, is fixed an- 
other pin, or lever w, which passes through a hole, or a short slit in the 
middle of a small bar x, which is placed a little below, and at right an- 
g;les to the axis of the roller, and also passes through each end of the 
hox U, and is at liberty to slide backwards and forwards; so that when 
the box, or carriage U, has traversed over the number of teeth requir- 
•^d in the rack, the end of the bar x comes in contact with a spring y., 

* The letter o, uges not appear in the original plate. — Editor. 



169 [ 175 ] 

(which is fixed on the axle S, hetween the racks,) and depresses It till 
it overcomes the resistance of the har x^ &c. which will be thrust for- 
wards, and act on the pin as in the underside of the roller V, and also 
turn the roller in the same direction, as by depressing the lever f, 
which will disengage the click s, and engage the click t in the rack^: 
then the carriage will be in proper trim for traversing to the other end 
of the axle S, which is performed by the action given to the treadles, 
which is also communicated to the pulley 2, on the end of the axle S, 
and therefore causes the axle to vibrate half a turn, each motion of 
the treadles: as the axle is in the act of turning in the direction of the 
arrow, the circular inclined plane n^ acts against the end of the rack g, 
and pushes it along the groove in the axle S, together with the car- 
riage U, &c. equal to one notch or tooth of the rack; when the axle has 
returned half way, the spiral spring h presses back the rack g to its 
former situation, without moving the carriage U, on the axle S, (as 
the rack is at liberty to slide in that direction under the click, without 
butting against one of the teeth;) and by repeating another vibration of 
the axle, the carriage will be moved forward another tooth, one tooth 
each vibration, and so on, till the carriage has arrived at the other end 
of the axle S, then the other end of the bar x, will be brought in con- 
tact, and pushed against a spring z, (which is fixed on the upper side of 
the axle, between the racks, at any required distance from the spring 
?/, between the racks, according to the number of strings or lashes r r, 
that the figure may require,) till the spring overcomes the resistance of 
the bar cT, &c. which turns the roller V, and changes the action of the 
clicks s and t\ then the carriage U will traverse back one tooth for each 
vibration of the axle S, by the action of the circular inclined plane m, 
on the rack y, till the end of the bar x comes in contact with the 
springy, when the action of the clicks s and t will be again changed. 
The racks y an d^, both slide backwards and forwards, the extent of a 
tooth, by the action of the two circular inclined planes m and w, for * 
each vibration of the axle; but, as only one of the clicks is allowed to 
act on the rack at the same time, the motion of the other rack does not 
interrupt the progress of the carriage U, &c. The frame which con- 
tains the joint end of the click s^ can be so adjusted by the screw 3, that 
the carriage U will be stopped by each vibration of the axle S, in a situation 
differing by half a tooth, according as it traverses one way or the other; 
so that a different set of strings or lashes r r, &c. will be drawn at each 
vibration of the axle, till the carriage U has traversed backwards and for- 
wards on the axle S. W and X are two rails of wood, fixed on the 
upper side of the frame R R of the draw-boy, and parallel to the axle 
S; on the inner edge of the rails are fixed double the number of wire 
staples 44, &:c. to that of the teeth in the racky and g; the staples 4 4, 
&c. act as guides to the'strings or lashes r r, which pass through them, 
and are fixed to the rail Y, which has four rows of holes, through which 
the strings r r, &c., are passed and retained by a knot on the under side 
of the rail; the number of holes is equal, and opposite to those of the sta- 
ples 4 4, &c. and is also parallel to the axle S. In the end of the rails 
W and X are slits, through which, the screws 5 pass, that fix them to 



I 175 ] 170 

the frame; so that the staples 4 4, &c. in the rails, can be adjusted op- 
posite to the groove in the periphery of the draw-boy; 6 6 are 2 thin rails, 
or false tail boards, which are also fixed on the upper side of the frame 
R R, and parallel to the rails W and X; the strings rr, being made fast 
to the rail Y, and passed through their respective staples 4 4, &c. have 
another set of strings tied to them at 10 10, called the false tails, which are 
passed over and through guide staples on the upper side of two sniooth 
round rods, or arms 8 8, and then passed through the holes in the rails 
6 6 ; and to the ends of the strings are appended small leaden weights, 
or lingots, 9 9, &c. which draw the strings 7' r, &c. so as always to keep 
them straight; one of the rods, or arms 8 8, is attached to the upper 
part of the frame of the loom, and the other ends are suspended by 
strings from the ceiling of the room; to the upper ends of each of 
the strings r r, at 1 1 1 1, is tied another series of smaller strings or lashes 
12 12, the upper ends of which are also tied to certain horizontal 
strings d d, &c. which pass over the pulleys in the table G, and have 
the lambs or headles suspended from them : by this arrangement, it will 
be seen, that when one of the strings r, which is fastened to the rail Y, 
is pulled down, (by the action of the draw -boy, op^ow, on the upper 
side of the string r,) it draws one of 10, lifts one of the Weight 9, and 
raises such an arrangement of the lambs, or headles, as is proper to 
produce the figure which is to be woven. 

When the draw-boy T, and axle S, are returned to the situation, 
as shown in fig. 5, the weights / / /, which are suspended from the 
lambs, and those at 9 9 will replace the lambs, lashes, &c. in their 
former situation. 

In weaving heavy silks, or what is termed three, four, or more 
doubles, that is, so many double threads between each split of the 
reed, the power required to depress the treadles is so great that the 
weaver was obliged to have the assistance of a boy to turn a winch, 
which was fixed on the end of the axle S, which passed through the 
end frame of the draw-boy. 

The application of the winch to the draw-boy, was the invention 
of John Sholl, who was rewarded by the Society of Arts, &c. in the 
year 1810. 

Mr. Richards, being a machine or loom maker, observed the great 
difficulty of getting boys to attend their work, together with the ex- 
pense, which caused him to turn his attention to the subject, and he 
has been successful in making the machine so perfect and powerful as 
to supersede the necessity of a boy. 

The following are Mr. Richards' improvements on the draw-boy: 
The power which is to be applied to the tr'eadles 0, is commu- 
nicated to the treadles P P, by the cords 13 13, and from the treadles 
P 1^ to Q Q, by the cords 14 14; and from the treadles Q Qto the 
pulley 2, (which is represented by the dotted circle) by the cords 
15 15, which are tied to the treadles Q Q, and passed over two small 
guide pulleys, the frames of which are affixed to a cross bar of the 
frame R R; then one of the cords is passed under, and the other over 
^he pulley 2, and fixed to the heads of two screwed nails, which are 



171 [ 175 } 

screwed into the grooves in the periphery of the pulley 2; the pulley 
2 is fixed to the side of another pulley 18, eccentric to the axis of the 
axle S, by which means the power to turn the axle of the draw-boy 
increases as the treadles are dep.^ssed. Z, is another axle which turns 
on two conical steel centres, similar to those which support the axle 
S; to one end of the axle Z is fixed an iron wire 19, having a slit 
along it, through which a screw passes for fixing a weight 20, at any 
required distance from the centre of the axle; on the other end of 
the axle Z, is fixed a pulley 21, perpendicular to the pulley 18 on the 
axle S, each of which has two grooves on their respective peripheries j 
22 and 23 are two cords, which are passed round the pulleys in con- 
trary directions; the upper ends are fixed to the pulley 18 and the 
lower to 21; by which means the motion of the axle S is commu- 
nicated to the axle Z. Now, suppose the treadles were level with 
each other, the weight 20 would be perpendicular above the axle Z^ 
and would tend to turn it either way; consequently, as one of the 
treadles is depressed, the weight will pass to one side or the other of 
the axle, and its leverage power will be increased till the centre of 
gravity of the weight 20 has arrived horizontal with the axis of the 
axle Z; it will be obvious, that either by increasing the weight 20, 
or extending it further from the axle, the power will be increased; and 
by combining the eccentricity of the pulley 2, with the eccentricity 
of the weight 20, the power applied to the treadles may be increased 
so as to counterbalance any number of lambs or beadles, and the 
weight appended to them, and to the false tail, together with the 
power required for raising or opening the warp for the shuttle to pass 
through. 

Another of Mr. Richards' improvements, is the application, with 
certain modifications, of box 24, called the tabby box, which is fixed 
to the axle S, and has a semicircle 25 fixed to it, similar to the figure 
box, but without the clicks, &c. To the under part of the box 24, is 
fixed a wire rod 26, which passes easily through the figure box, and is 
supported by a staple 27, near the end of the axle, through both of 
which it is at liberty to slide to and fro. 

28 and 29 are two sliding sockets, which can be fixed on the wire in 
any required place, by a set screw in the side of each. 

The use of the tabby box is to raise a certain set of the lambs, or 
headles, to work the plain part of the silk, between the figures, with- 
out having so much lash tied to each of the strings, r r, &c. To ad- 
just the tabby box for weaving figured cloth with a plain ground, the two 
sliding sockets 28 and 29 must be fixed on the wire rod 26, in their 
situations as shown in fig, 4; two strings, or lashes, must also be fixed, 
in a similar manner as those already described at r r, on each side of 
the axle opposite the tabby box, and passed through the staples 30 and 
31; see fig. 3, (only part of the rails on one side of the axle which the 
staples are fixed in, is shown here, but the other side is fitted up in a 
similar manner. ) Suppose the loom was already prepared to weave 
the figure as represented at fig. 6, and to commence at the line 30; the 
treadles being put in motion, will cause the axle to vibrate, the drsAv. 



[ 175 ] 172 

boy or bow T, ou the figure box U, will draw every other string or 
lash r r, on each side of the axle S alternately, till the box U has ar- 
rived at the spring Z, and raises such an arrangement of the lambs, or 
headles, as is proper to produce'the figures in the squares 33 33; at the 
same time the bow, or semicircle 25, on the tabby box, is drawing the 
strings or lashes 31 31, on each side of the axle alternately, and raises 
such an arrangement of the lambs as to produce the plain part of the cloth 
in the squares 34 34. At the instant the end of the small bar x, in the 
figure box U, comes in contact with the spring z, (on the upper side of 
the axle S,) the same end of the figure box on the under side of the axle 
also comes in contact with the socket 29, and at the next vibration of 
the axle, the rack g, will press the figure box U, together with the 
tabby box 24, forward on the axle, equal to one tooth of the rack, 
when the action of the clicks in the figure box will be changed, and 
the bow or semicircle 25, on the tabby box, will be opposite the sta- 
ples which contain the strings or lashes 32 32, and will remain there, 
and draw the lashes on each side of the axle alternately, and raise such 
an arrangement of the lambs, as to produce the plain cloth in the 
squares 35 35; and at the same time, the figure box U will be travers- 
ing to the other end of the axle, and the semicircle T will be drawing 
the lashes r r, on each side of the axle, alternately, which it skipped 
when it traversed the other way; by which means, a new arrangement 
of the lambs will be raised, so as to produce the figures in the squares 
36 36. When the other end of the small bar x shall be brought in 
contact with the spring y, at the same instant the end of the figure 
box will be in contact with the socket 28 : and the next vibration of the 
axle will cause the rack F to push the figure box, together with the 
tabby box, along the axle S, equal to one tooth of the rack; then the 
tabby box, together with the wire rod and sockets, will be in their 
former situations, as shown in fig. 4; and the action of the clicks, in 
the figure box, will again be changed, and the whole figure completed, 
and the machine ready to produce a similar set of figures to those al- 
ready described. 

Improved Ribbo7i Loom. 

In the 40th volume of the Transactions of the Society in London, 
for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, an.d Commerce,* Mr. 
J. Thompson, of Coventry, gives a full and very minute account of 
his recent improvements on the ribbon loom, illustrated by four plates. 
The advantages stated to result from these, are — 

1. It produces figures much finer than any loom heretofore made 
in England, and of larger size. 

2. Eight treadles do the work of thirty-two treadles, in the com- 
mon loom. 

3. The common loom is limited to forty lashes, the improved one 
extends to 180 lashes; so that it is capable of producing work of great- 
ly superior richness and fineness. 

* London, 1823. p. 195. 



173 [175 ] 

4. The common loom makes only one ribbon at a time, and produces 
at the rate of about H piece per week. Mr. T.'s make four at once. 

Mr. T.'s loom allows the weaver to put any quantity of plain work 
that he pleases between the pattern, without changing the figure. 

6. The weaver may instantly throw off the figure altogether, and 
produce plain ribbons, whenever work of this kind is required; whereas, 
all the present figure looms must continue making the particular figure 
for which they have been mounted. Fifty guineas and a gold medal, 
were presented to Mr. Thompson for this great improvement in the 
art of ribbon weaving. 

In the 7th volume of the elaborate work by Borgnis, on arts and 
manufactures, there is another description of a ribbon loom, for weav- 
ing many pieces at the same time, with plates. The Nouvelle Ency- 
clopedie Methodique contains ten double quarto plates, equivalent to 
twenty single plates of machinery, for the manufacture of several pieces 
of ribbon at once. It is probable that they represent the old ma- 
chinery, but they may doubtless be referred to with advantage, as they 
are large and very distinct. These three works are in the library of 
the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, and may be con- 
sulted by artists, upon application to the Librarian, Mr, John Vaughan. 

Improved French Looms. 

In the year 1808, Mr. Jacquart, of Lyons, in France, invented a 
loom intended to do the work commonly effected by draw-boys, in 
the manufacture of figured stuff* for which he received a premium of 
3,000 francs from the Society for the Encouragement of National In- 
dustry. This admirable invention remained unknown to the English 
until the year 1816, when it was seen by Mr. William Hale, and men- 
tioned by him to several silk manufacturers; one of whom, Mr. Ste- 
phen Wilson went over to France, and introduced it into England, t 
with improvements. The loom is applicable alike to silk, cotton, 
woollen, and linen stuffs. The specification of Mr. W. 's patent is in- 
serted in the Repertory of Arts, vol. 44, p. 257, with a plate. It is 
also described, but without a plate, in Borgnis' work, vol. 1, p. 267. 

The great advantages of Jacquart's loom, consist in — 

1. Enabling every plain weaver to become a figured weaver, to 
make goods which they have the greatest difficulty in making in Spi- 
talfields. 

2. In their being but one treadle. Instead of a number of treadles, 
or cords, which a boy stands to pull up and down, as in the common 
loom, the weaver has only to tread on that one treadle, and to throw 
the shuttle. 

3. In enabling the weaver to change a pattern in a few minutes, 
while the common loom requires many days or weeks. 

* That is, pulling- down the cords, to work a number of treadles at a time. 
•j- Minutes of the evidence taken before the Committee of the Lords on the Silk 
Trade, June 25, 1823, p. 12. Do. July 3, 1823, p. 174. 



<9^ 

I 175 ] 174 

The great superiority of this loom over the common kind, is further 
proved by the following facts: One man can make one hundred yards 
of figured stuff in twenty-five days. Mr. Stephen Wilson, who intro- 
duced this loom into England from France, in his examination before 
the Committee of the British House of Commons, on the silk trade, 
said, " here are a number of works that have been made with it, (pro- 
ducing a shawl;) this shawl has one thousand two hundred Cords. I 
never knew of a loom of that number of cords in Spitalfields. Here 
is another work (producing another shawl) of six hundred cords; the 
vvreaver does all himself. It is also adapted for damask, which is one 
of the heaviest kinds of work. I always consider two yards and a 
half a good day's work for a weaver; and I have had made from three 
to four yards a day; and this is shot with worsted, which requires a 
stronger blow. Generally, they are drawn every four shoots; but this 
is drawn every shoot, which makes it a more difficult work : this pat- 
tern is three yards long, but it can be made of any length whatever. 
I have now a pattern going on with 7,000 lashes. If I am not too 
sanguine, my idea of this machinery is, that it is of as much conse- 
quence to the silk manufacture of this country, (England) as Ark- 
wright's machine was to cotton ; and that it will supersede a great 
deal of the machinery now in use." 

Le Brunts Loom. 

Mr. Le Brun, of Lyons, has more recently invented a loom, with 
objects similar to those effected by Mr. Jacquart's apparatus. It is 
composed of five stages, and the mechanism, which is simple, allows 
one man to weave five pieces at the same time. Borgnis, speaking of it, 
says: *'This apparatus is highly ingenious, easy of execution, and 
costs but little : it accomplishes fully the object of the inventor, with- 
out increasing the trouble of the workman, who is enabled to dispense 
with the aid of a draw-boy, as the machine performs his duty with the 
greatest precision. The harmony of the work, of the several parts, 
and the order of the design, are admirable."* Borgnis gives an out- 
line of a description of Jacquart's and Le Brun's looms; but the utter 
impossibility of finding any who could translate the technical phrases 
into English, prevented its insertion, t A manufacturer of figured 
stuffs would be amply repaid by going to Paris to procure one of these 
looms, models of which are deposited in the Conservatoire des Arts 
et Metieres." 

English Patents* 

Philip Shell, of Kensington, for improvement in machinery for 
drawing, roving, and spinning hemp, flax, and waste silk| — Februarv, 

1823. 

* Vol. 1. p. 265. 

•[• No dictionary contains the names of the numerous parts- 

t Repertory of Patent InventionSt vol. 2d, p. ^&5: 1826 



175 [ 175 ] 

William Godman, of Coventry, for ^^ new arrangement of the shut- 
tles in the slays, as connected with the batton, and the suspending of 
the knotted parts of the lashes, on one set of shafts, to arrange with 
the same. This invention applies to that description of looms called 
** Dutch engine looms," employed to weave narrow articles"* — Sep- 
tember, 1822. 

T. Wm. Stansfield, of Leeds, for improvements in looms for 
weaving fabrics composed, in whole or in part, of woollen, worsted. 
Cotton, linen, silk, or other material! — July, 1825. 

Richard Badnall, Jun. of Leek, Staffordshire, for improvements in 
the manufacturing of silk, including the winding of silk, and for spin- 
ning, doubling, and throwing it, by one operation — July, 1825. J 

Be Bergues^ Power Loom. 

In the London Register of Arts, vol. 3, p. 83, § is a series of cuts 
representing this new loom, which was the subject of a lecture by the 
President of the London Mechanic Institution. It may be used either 
as a hand loom or a power loom, and is entirely composed of cast 
iron, with the exception of the axis, which, carrying all the moving 
eccentrics, or cams, requires great strength, and is of wrought iron. 
When used as a power loom, motion may be communicated to it by a 
wheel, which is turned by the hand, by steam, or water. A single 
wheel will give motion to several looms, and a steam engine will, of 
course, work a much larger number. The machine was worked be- 
fore the audience. In two minutes, one inch and sixteenths of a web 
were manufactured. When worked as a power loom, by means of a 
fly-wheel, one of the silk threads broke, and the motion immediately 
ceased. The manner in which this was effected was described. One 
advantage of this loom is, that no inconvenience is ever experienced 
from the uncertain stroke of the lay and shuttle, as it is uniform and 
invariable. Another is, that one movement does the work, and one 
hand is sufficient to work it. Thus, a weaver with his family, may 
become a power loom weaver: for by a wheel in the corner of his 
room, and one child, or a laborer, to turn it, he can superintend two 
or more looms. The receding motion of the lay being slower than the 
advancing motion, (an advantage which is absolutely necessary for weav- 
ing silk,) gives a greater time to the shuttle to pass slower, and, con- 
sequently, enables the weaver to put a more tender shoot in his shuttle^ 
or to weave a broader cloth. The shuttle will pass from 60 to 130 
times per minute, according to the will of the weaver, and always with 
the same uniformity. Another recommendation is, the ease with 
which the weaver can regulate its different motions by tightening or 
loosening the pressing screws, on the only axis there used, by which 
the motion must always be uniform and regular, one part with another; 

* Repertory of Patent Inventions, vol. 44, for 1824, p. 8. 
I Do do vol. 2, for 1826, p. 96. 

t Bo do vol. 2, p. 227: 1826 

^ 1826.. 



I 175 3 176 

to this may be added its probable durability, without repair; those 
parts which are most likely to be deranged will not require two shil- 
lings to repair them. 

KendalVs Domestic Power Loom. 

In the Register of Arts, vol. 3, p. 11 3, is a figure and description 
of this loom. It is said to be effectual and simple: a boy of twelve 
years of age, with a proper fly-wheel, will find no difficulty in turning 
six or eight of them when the work is plain. For rich works, an able 
weaver, with good materials, will be able to work two looms. The 
machine works steadily, and with few stickings. In one experiment, 
two pieces of silk were made, with a very slight application of the 
hand. It operates exactly as the common hand loom, and every de- 
scription of fabrics can be woven by it. The arrangements prepara- 
tory to weaving are similar to those of a common loom. 

The patentee resides at No. 8, Pater Noster Row, St. Paul's, Lon- 
don. 

Patent toH. R. Fanshaw, London, silk-em,hosser, for his invention 
of improved apparatus for spinning, doubling and twisting, or 
throwing Silk. — Passed August 12,1825.* 

The subjects of this patent are described as consisting of four par- 
ticulars; first, a new arrangement or disposition of vertical or horizon- 
tal bobbins, to be employed for the purpose of spinning and doubling 
silk: second, a new mode of forming the flyers, with double arms, for 
guiding the threads on to the bobbins: third, a contrivance for throwing 
the bobbins in and out of action; and fourth, a mode of retaining the 
horizontal bobbins against the bearing board. The annexed cut shows 
the arrangement of the several parts of the machine; a a, are the verti- 
cal bobbins, turning loosely upon the spindles h b, which, with the fly- 
ers c c, are made to revolve by means of the cords extending from the 
rotary pulley d. The silk passes from the bobbins a, upwards, through 
eyes e, over a glass rod f, between the drawing rollers g, which ar- 
rangement of the parts, so far, is the same as in ordinary machines for 
throwing silk. 

The silk threads from the two or more bobbins a a, are delivered 
from the drawing rollers to the bobbin flyer of the horizontal bobbin 
h, which being turned by a cord from the before-mentioned pulley d, 
Causes the silken threads to be doubled and wound upon the horizontal 
bobbin; the traversing of the bearing plate ^, causing the bobbin to be 
slidden along the spindle, so that the silk shall be evenly wound upon 
the bobbin. 

Such is the disposition of the machinery which, though not new in 
its separate parts, is herein claimed as new in its arrangement, and is 
employed in the way described for the production of organzine, or of 

'^ From the London Journal of Arts and Sciences, by W. Newton, vol. xiii, p. 265 



177 



[ 175 ] 



sewing silk; but, when another description of silk, called Bergam, is to 
be prepared, then only one of the vertical bobbins is to be put in opera- 
tion, and another thread is to be drawn from the stationary bobbin A,v 

When very delicate threads are to be twisted, and doubled, it is pro- 
posed to use a flyer, similar to that shown at figure 2, with the ends 
turning down, and forming loops or eyes for the fine threads to pass 
through. In case of any of the threads breaking, it would be necessa- 
ry to stop the bobbin connected with it. This is done by moving the 
lever /, which turns upon the fulcrum pin 7?i, fixed in a stationary bar 
crossing the machine. This lever embraces a clutchbox ?^, attached to 
the rotary shaft on which the pulley d turns, and by moving the lever 
/ to the right or left by the handle o, the pulley d is locked into gear, 
with the rotary shaft, or taken out of gear, and made stationary. As 
any sudden starting of the bobbins would endanger breaking the threads, 
it is contrived that the pulley d, shall be gradually put into gear, which 
is done by a circular inclined plane, on the face of the pulley, and a pin 
on the inner side of the clutch. The clutch being slidden by the lever 
towards the pulley, its pin moves upon the circular inclined plane un- 
til it comes to the end, and there, striking against the raised edge, car- 
ries the pulley round with it. The lever is held in its proper position 
by a spring catch at o. 

The bobbin is held against the bearing board by a spring latch jo, 
which falls into a groove at the foot of the bobbin. These new ar- 
rangements are deemed by the trade very important improvements. 




Improved Power Loom. 

By J . H . Sadler, of Middlesex, machinist 

The object of the patentee, is to give motion to the operative part? 
of a loom, by means of a rotary power, so applied, that its mecha- 
nism shall occupy no greater space than is required for the standing of 
an ordinary loom. To effect this object, the main rotary shaft, which 



I 175 ] 178 

receives its motion from a steam-engine, or other first mover, is placed 
at the top of the loom; and, by means of cam.s and tappots affixed to 
the main shaft, the headles are moved up and down, which open the 
sheds of the warp; the lay or batten is made to oscillate, and the shut- 
tle is projected to and fro, at the proper intervals of time. 

This loom is also adapted to the weaving cotton, linen, wool, flax, 
and hemp, and mixtures thereof.* Plates accompany the specification. 

Jimeriean Winding, Doubling, and Twisting Machine, 

The Messrs. Terhoeven, brothers, of Philadelphia county, have re- 
cently invented a simple and ingenious machine, for winding silk from 
cocoons, and for doubling and twisting the thread at the same time. 
These operations, it is believed, have never before been united in the 
same machine. It answers the object intended perfectly. A fringe 
weaver, who has seen the silk thread finished on this machine, pro- 
nounced it equal to any imported. The Board intrusted with the 
management of the fund left by the late John Scott, of Edinburgh, 
to the corporation of Philadelphia, for the distribution of premiums 
^' to ingenious men and women, who make useful inventions and im- 
provements," have awarded a medal and twenty dollars to the in- 



ventors. 



Recent Imjrrovenient in Silk iveaving. 



Stephen Wilson, a silk manufacturer, when examined before the 
Committee of the House of Commons on the Silk Trade, July 3, 
1823, stated, that the following improvement had been made in Eng- 
land and Scotland 

In Scotland and Norwich they have shifting boxes, which save 
much trouble in changing the shuttles, so that a weaver can shoot dif- 
ferent colors as ^ast as he could a single one. They have also lifting 
boxes. The shifting boxes are generally confined to three or four 
shuttles; the lifting boxes go as far as twelve or sixteen colors, which 
the weaver shoots with the fly, one after another. In Scotland they 
have also many improvements in w^caving, which we know very little 
of in Spitalfields. They have what they call lappets, a quantity of 
needles that rise near the battens, and serve instea4-of brocading. 
They have also another very ingenious plan, which they call circles. 
In Spitalfields we brocade each of these figures with small shuttles, 
separately; but in Scotland the circles do all at one time, which is a 
great improvement in lessening labor. They have also what they call 
the cylinder or barrel weaving, which enables the weaver to dispense 
with a draw- hoy in heavy works. And they have another method of 
weaving in the old damask loom, which is a very important one; and 
which is done by what they call a comb: this species of mounting is 
very much introduced for damask table cloth weaving. A gentleman 

* London Journal of Arts and Sciences. Bv W, Newton^ Jiilv. 1P.?7 



179 [ 175 ] 

from Westmoreland a few days ago, informed me he had a work mak- 
ing on this plan, with 14,000 lashes; that he had heen in Spitalfields, 
and was surprised to see how far behind they were in damask weav- 
ing: for that they had no improvement upon the old looms. There is 
also a loom invented by Mr. Roberts, of Manchester, for which he 
has taken out a patent, of which I have heard a great deal, but have 
not seen it. 

Question. Are the shawls )"ou have produced, made by the improved 
machinery to which you have alluded? — They are; I never could 
get them made on the old plan; owing to the immense weight, and the 
quantity of lash, it never would work clear. They are now made 
with one treadle, and the facility with which the weaver changes his 
pattern is such, that he makes four, five, and six different patterns in 
one week, besides changing his figure at the border. 

Method of preventing the loateinng of Silks ivithout the use of a 

knee roll. * 

There are two imperfections which silks, especially plain ones, are 
liable to acquire in the loom. One called cocldin, is merely an un- 
evenness of the surface, and arises usually from one longitudinal edge 
or selvage of the piece being more stretched than the other, in conse- 
quence of its not being wrapped evenly round the roll or cylinder of 
the loom. The other imperfection, called watering, is a wav}'^ or 
streaky appearance, produced by a play of light on the surface of the 
silk, though that surface may be quite smooth. The cause of this 
wavy appearance is not completely understood, but appears, in a great 
mieasure, to depend on unequal pressure being given to the piece while 
on the roll. It is well known that the highest polish and gloss is 
given to silk in the hank by twisting it hard, and, at the same time, 
giving it a kind of oscillating movement, so that each individual thread 
may be rubbed repeatedly on those with which it is in contact, whereby 
they mutually polish each other. Now, a piece of silk, in the pro- 
cess of manufacture, may be conceived to be placed in circumstances 
considerably favorable to the production of this partial polish, if, when 
rolled tight, and rather unevenly on the roll, it is subject to th-e vibra- 
tion occasioned by the stroke of the lay upon the weft, which take,? 
place after every throw of the shuttle. 

The contrivance which used to be resorted to, in order to prevent 
the watering of silks, was by means of a knee roll. The five or six 
yards, which constitute an average day's work, being first rolled on 
the large or breast roller, during the weaving, were every evening 
transferred to a smaller roll, called, from its position, a knee roll. In 
doing this, great care was required to lay each fold precisely upon the 
preceding one, a manipulation that occupied about half an hour; and 
the silk, by frequent handling, was apt to become soft and less sale- 
.^ble. Of late years, attempts, more or less successful, have been made 

* Trans. Society of Arts, London, vol.. 4?- 



[ 175 ] 180 

to avoid the use of the knee roll, by inserting a sheet of thin glazed 
pasteboard, at certain intervals between the folds of silk on the breast 
roll, which, from its elasticity, yields to the vibration of the loom, 
without communicating any motion to the silk, while its own smooth 
surface allows it to move a little on the surface of the silk, without 
any injurious friction. The most successful application of this contri- 
vance, has been made by Mr. Peter Caron, which, although perhaps, 
in part, to be attributed to his own individual dexterity, (for, by the 
testimony of the foreman of Mr. Leveque, for whom he works, he ap- 
pears to be a remarkably careful skilful weaver,) has been considered by 
the society worthy of being made public for the benefit of others in the 
same trade, both workmen and masters. 

The process is the following: 

After a porry (a quantity of five or six yards) has been wove, and 
rolled on the breast roll in the usual way, during the weaving, it is 
to be unrolled, and carefully rolled again as evenly as possible; a 
sheet of pasteboard, or pressers' paper, being put in the last turn. When 
a second porry has been finished, it is to be again rolled as above describ- 
edjthe sheet of pasteboard inserted in the last fold of the former porr}'-, be- 
ing first removed ; but, at the end of every second porry, or twelve yards 
of work, the pasteboard which has been inserted is to remain until the 
piece is finished, especial care being taken that the pasteboard lies as 
close on the roll as the work itself does. Mr. Caron has practised this 
method for three years, and, during that time, has not had a piece in 
the slightest degree watered. The kinds of work to which it has been 
applied, have been Gros de Naples, Florentines, and double-twilled 
sarsnets. 

Extracts from the Minutes of Evidence taken hy Committees of 
both Houses of the Parliament of England, on the subject of the 
Silk trade and Silk manufacture, in the year 1821.^ 

Enoch Durant, a silk broker. — Silk is principally imported from 
Bengal, China, Italy, and Turkey. The average, of late years, amounts 
fully to a million eight hundred thousand pounds. Bengal sends about 
eight hundred thousand pounds, somewhat under; China about one 

* when any subject of commerce, manufacture or internal improvement, is 
brought before Parliament, the House, instead of considerin.^ itself ex officio inspired, 
and fully competent to decide on the occasion, appoint a committee to examine and 
report on it, with authority to send for persons and papers. This committee, if they 
find it necessary, sit durin^^ the recess, and examine intelligent men, practically ac- 
quainted witli the subject before them, from \a horn all the information )-equisite to 
elucidate it, is obtained; and, after athoroug-li and patient inveariei-ation of it, a bill, 
founded thereon, is brought forward. The minutes of the evidence are reg-tdarly pub- 
iished, to show the grounds of the provisions in the bill laid before the House. In 
this way the despatch of tl»e public business is not only greatly promoted, but thou- 
sands of pounds are annually saved or gained to the nation, not in the way of daily pay, 
by preventing debates of weeks or months, (for the members receive no pay,j bat by 
the proposed improvem.ent Uking place, nrby a wise lawgohiginto speedy operation, 
or by the repeal of one which has been proved to be injurious to the prosperity of 
the country. 



Boc. ns^-page 180. 

TABLE of the rearing of Silkworms to the Sixth Age, from, one ounce of Eo-g-. 




1st (lay-1 
2d do ■ 
3il do 
4th do 
5tli do 

f lstday-1 

2rl dn I 



I'ltlH Age .< 



.1.281 



Tender young leaves, chopped fine; four meals, progressively increased. 

'' " " tl'e first the largest, the last the smallest 

** '* four meals. 

The first meal of 9 oz. the others less, if tlio leaves h,ave not been eaten. 
Tender leaves, chopped fine. Worms casting their first skins. 

Half tender branches and half leaves, cut fine; the first meal twelve ounces, the other leaver in t«-^ ^. i 
Tender leaves, four meals; tlie two first less than the two last. Enlarge the spaces "'"''■ 

*' *' the two first the largest. 

" ." distributed as wanted. Worms casting their second skins. 

Half tender branches, half leaves a little chopped; second meal 1 lb. 14 oz. 
Chopped leaves, four meals; tlie two first less than the two last. Enlarge the spaces. 

" ** the two first the largest. 

" ** " " the last, least. 

" " distributed as retjuired. Third casting of their skins. 

** ** " ** Worms are roused. 

9 lbs. of branches, 14 lbs. of leaves, cut coarsely; give the branches first. 
Leaves coarsely cut, fom- meals; the two first tlie smallest. Enlarge the spaces. 

" " three meals; the tln-ee first the least, the last 17 lbs. 4 oz. 

Whole leaves, four meals; the three first 16 lbs. 4 oz. the last lOilbs. 
Picked leaves distributed as wanted; the first meal the largest. 

** " " *' Worms prepare to cast their skins. 

Leaves as wanted. Worms are roused. 

Half branches and half leaves. Enlarge the spaces. 

Picked leaves, four meals; the first the smallest, 12 lbs. the last 22 lbs. 

" the first meal 2S lbs. the last 27 lbs. 12 ounces. 

" " 27 lbs. 12 oz. the last 37^ lbs. 

** ** 37i lbs. tile second 46 !bs. 14 ounces. 

** four meals, die last the most abundant. 

** ** the first meal tlie largest, the rest to lessen gradually. 

** four or five meals, the first the largest, 46 lbs. 14 ounces. 

" distributed as wanted. Worms approach maturity. 

" • *< ** if not enough, give more. 



The table is taken from the work by Bonafous, of Piedmont, on Silkworms. Lyons, 1824. The measures and weights are French. The French foot is divided into 12 inches, 
and the inch into 12 lines. It is nine lines more than the American foot, or one foot 7-100 American, nearly. Six French feet are six feet four inches American; twelve French feet are 
twelve feet nine inches American, fractions omitted; 93.89 French feet make 100 feet American. Those who intend to regulate the spaces by the rules of either Dandolo or Bonafous, 
may easily do so, by noting the dimensions of each hurdle or feeding frame. (See chap. 5 ) It will be seen, by referring to chap. 13, tliat the spaces prescribed by Bonafous, are greater 
than those marked by Dandolo. The dimensions of this author, may be considered, as a minimum, or the least that can be allowed, to secure the health of silkworms. It cannot be too 
often repeated, that the constant role to be attended to, is to give the worms ample space, ai)d never to permit them to be crowded. The spaces, as set down in the table, when reduced to 
American measure, are as follow, fractions omitted: 

Feet. Inches. Feet. 

9 6 



21 
52 

124 
272, 



The quantities of leaves marked for the several days andages, are those which have been found sufficient. The knowledge of the precise proportions may be usefiil, if a great 
quantity of worms be reared, when leaves are bought; or when persona are hired to collect th«m, by enabUng the proprietor to make his contracts for the daily supplies; and by preventing 
the unnecessary waste of leaves, and surfeiting the worms, when he owns the trees. It should always be kept in mind, that, besides these reasons, a superabundance of food greatly in- 
creases the trouble of the attendants, from the litter it produces. The proportions prescribed by Bonafous, when reduced to American weights, are as follow, omitting fractions; 

lbs. lbs. oz. 



12 



21 



210 229 8 

1,281 - 1,400 

In Chap. 8, it will be seen, that the weights of leaves are greater than those prescribed by Dandolo. 



~3aaHB4P|pA 



181 [ 175 ] 

hundred thousand pounds; Turkey the same. The remainder comes 
from Italy — about eight hundred thousand pounds. 

The duties on raw silk are as follow: Bengal 4s.; Italian, Turkey, 
and China, 5s. Ihd. per pound. Italian organzine, 14:S. 6d. to 14,9. I^d. 
per pound. Prices paid for organzine silk in England, 7^. to 10^. per 
pound; the waste is from three to fifteen per cent. No organzine is 
made in France; they prepare their own trams and singles. China silk 
is applicable to hosiery — the Italian is not. 

John Thorpe, rihhon manufacturer. — The price for making organ- 
zine in Italy, is from 3,^. to 4^. per pound. There is a great difference 
in the size and goodness of the silk to work. In England it costs from 
7^. to \0s. per pound to make it. The French are superior to the En- 
glish in ribbons, but inferior in hosiery. China silk goods are heavier 
than English, but not of a better quality. The China ravv^ silk is 
equal to most Italian, and better than any J3engal. 

John De Ferre, a silk merchant. — In the Bengal silk there is a kind 
of cottony or fuzzy substance, which is thrown up into a pile or knap 
when woven. This is not perceived in the raw silk of Italy, France. 
or Turkey. The price of Bengal silk per pound, duty included, is 
from 14.?. to 2>0s.; that of Italian raw silk, from \Ss. to 35,y. 

Stephen Wilson, a silk manufacturer. — Nearly two millions of 
pounds weight of raw and thrown silks are annually imported into 
England; it gives employment to 40,000 hands, in throwing it for the 
weaver, and their wages are ^6350,000. Half a million pounds of soap 
and a large proportion of the most costly die stuffs, are consumed at a 
further expense of £300,000; and £265,000 more are paid to winders 
to prepare it. The number of looms may be taken at 40,000, and the 
weavers, warpers, mechanics, &c. will- employ 80,000 more persons, 
and their wages will amount to £3,000,000. Including infants and 
dependants, 400,000 mouths will be fed by this manufacture; the 
amount of which I estimate at £10,000,000. 

The price of dying white at Lyons, is fifteen sous, or seven pence 
half penny per pound; and colors 24 sous, or one shilling. In England 
the price of the first is 2s., and of the latter, from 2s. 6d. to As. The 
drawback on silk goods, in England, is \2s. per pound — ribbons lO-y. 

English silk goods are exported chiefly to the Brazils, and other 
parts of South America. 

The labor in preparing raw silk, affords much more employment to 
the country producing it, than any other raw material. 

The defect complained of in the Bengal gilk, is in the preparation- 
There is nothing in the nature of the silk, which should not render il 
applicable to every purpose of Italian silk/ 



[ 175 ] lSi2 



APPENDIX. 

TREATISE ON DYING SILK. 

To cleanse Silk. 

This operation consists in depriving silk of the principles which af- 
fect its whiteness and flexibility. Monsieur Roard read before the 
Institute of France a very interesting memoir on this subject; of 
which the following is the result.* 

1. That all unbleached yellow silk contains gum, coloring matter, 
wax, and a volatile odoriferous oil, analogous to essential oils, extract- 
ed from many vegetables. 

2. That all white, unbleached silks, yield, also, gum, wax, and 
oil, slightly colored, which seems to bear some relation to the liquor 
contained in the chrysalis of the silkworm. 

The gum is dry, friable, and, when powdered, is of a clear, yellow- 
ish, red color, soluble in water, but scarcely soluble in alcohol. It 
amounts to from 23 to 24 per cent. The coloring matter is resinous, 
of a reddish brown color, and of a beautiful yellowish green, when 
powdered, and of a strong odour; soluble in boiling soap and water, 
i^carcely in caustic alkali. It exists in the proportion of from -^-^ to -^^ 
per cent. 

The wax is hard, but brittle, and slightly coloured: insoluble in wa- 
ter, but easily soluble in alkalies and soap. The fine silks of China, 
Saint Ambroix; and of Rocquemarre, have much less of this substance 
than the other unbleached silks of France, and especially those of 
Ital}-. The proportion of wax is from ^^o ^^ T^o °^ ^^^^ weight of silk. 

3. That the silks which yield the finest white, are the very white 
unbleached silks, and the yellow unbleached silks of a fine golden co- 
lor: and that all the other silks, which are more or less dull, and in 
which the gum has undergone any change of condition, either by rea- 
son of sickness, or bad nutriment of the worms, or by the destruction 
of the chrysalis in too great a heat, or by winding, ill-conducted, will 
never attain more than a dull white, always somewhat colored, unless 
they be exposed, in the unbleached state, to the action of sulphureous gas. 

4. That light bleaches the yellow and w^hite silks, without altering 
their lustre, or their solidity; and that this agent may be employed 
to much advantage, either before or after they are cleansed. Four 
or five days exposure to the sun is sufficient to efiect this object. 

* Memoirs of tlie Tnstitute, for the year 1808, (class of Mathematical and Physical 
Sciences,) vol viii. p. 552. It gives all the particulars of the experiments which led 
to the above interesting results. Monsieur Hoard is a practical chemist, and was 
formerly director of the diei's' department in the Gobelin manufactoiy of Paris. 



183 [ 175 'J 

5. That water, alcohol, the acids, and even the alkalies, do not en- 
tirely dissolve, equally well as the soap, the matters contained in the 
silk; and that this agent ought to continue to be exclusively preferred 
in the cleansing of silks, to all the above substances. 

6. That the oxi-muriatic acid changes the properties of the gum, di- 
minishes its affinity to water, and assimilates it to the resins^ by rcn- 
dering it soluble in alcohol. 

7. That the silk, after being separated, by cleansing, from all the 
substances which concealed its whiteness and its brilliancy, loses af- 
terwards in this bath, by the continued action of the soap, all the pro- 
perties that it acquired by it; becoming dull, stiff, and colored, by the 
solution of more or less of its texture; a solution which is effected by 
all liquids, and which takes place even in boiling water. It is to this 
cause, hitherto unknown, that we must attribute the impossibility of 
impregnating the silks, whilst hot, with alum, and the destruction of 
apart of their brilliancy, in all the colors somewhat brown, for which 
we are obliged to employ the heat of boiling water. 

8. That these great inconveniences may be obviated, by causing the 
silks to be boiled no longer than is necessary for cleansing them com- 
pletely; and by submitting them only to moderate heats, in all the 
operations of dying. 

9. That copper vessels cause some trouble, owing to the ease with 
which they oxidate, and discolor the silk, as has been shown in his 
memoir on aluming. 

10. That it is highly important to employ very pure water, free 
from calcareous impregnation, but not in unnecessary quantities, in 
order not to increase the proportion of injurious salts, and not to weak- 
en the force of the solvent. 

The proper proportions for this operation,, as ascertained after many 
experiments on a large scale, are seven or eight pounds of water to one 
of silk; and one-twelfth, or one-sixth, is sufficient for the greater num- 
ber of colors: for yellow unbleached silks, and, above all, for those 
of Grenada (Spain) it is necessary to add from 50 to 60 per cent. The 
greatest quantities do not produce a very sensible effect upon those silks: 
for we cannot make them as white as those unbleached white silks 
cleansed with 25 per cent, of soap, even by the combined action of equal 
weights of soap and sulphureous gas. 

11. Experiments have shown that all silks are completely cleansed 
in less than an hour; and that they lose their coloring and waxy mat- 
ters, in proportion to the quantity of soap which the cleansing bath 
contained. 

12. The operations of ungumming, boiling, and bleaching, which 
take up six hours, may be reduced to one operation, of an hour, with 
t)he same quantity of soap. I propose, then, the following method to 
cleanse silks. To boil, for an hour, all yellow and white silks, with 
five parts of water to one of silk, and a quantity of soap, which may 
be determined according to the colors intended to give them; to put 
the silks and soap in the water only half an hour before the moment of 
obuUition, taking core 1o turn them nften. Lon^; boilins: causes the 



[ 175 ] 184 

silk to lose a portion of its substance, and, in doing so, it also lose« 
its brilliancy and solidity. 

Dr. Bancroft says, that " silk ought never to be subjected to a boil- 
^'ing heat, either when the mordant is applied, or afterwards, in the 
*^ dying operation; where a high temperature, besides injuring the 
** texture and lustre of the silk, would detach and separate the mor- 
**dant before the coloring matter could have combined, and produced 
**an insoluble union with both.''* 

The injury of subjecting silk to a boiling heat, is further proved by 
the experiments of those eminent French chemists, Thenard and Ho- 
ard, which show that " alumed silks take color more intensely when 
**they are died at a low temperature, than when they are plunged at 
*^ once into boiling water. The reason is, that, in the first case, the 
"action of the boiling water on the mordants is so quick, that the co- 
" loring matter has not time to be fixed on it, in order to give insolu- 
'*bility to the combination; but, in the second case, this cannot take 
*' place. '^t 

Of unguniming and boiling Silk for white.X 

Make up the silk into hanks, that is to say, run a thread around 
each hank, which consists of a certain quantity of skeins tied together. 
After that, the hanks are to be untied, and several of them to be bound 
together to make up a bundle, the size and names whereof vary ac- 
cording to the nature of the article to be manufactured. 

This precaution of making up into hanks is necessary, that the silk 
may be more easily managed, more conveniently handled, and to pre- 
vent them from being entangled. 

After this operation, soap is to be dissolved in water, heated in a 
kettle, in the proportion of thirty pounds to every hundred weight of 
silk. (A dier of silk, to whom these directions were submitted, says, 
^Uhat 15 lbs. of soap are enough for 100 lbs. of silk; more would 
'^ destroy its lustre." The kind of soap will cause difference in re- 
sults.) Cut the soap into small slices, to promote its solution; after 
the soap has been dissolved, the kettle is to be filled up with fresh wa- 
ter, and the doors of the furnace closed, leaving only a few live coals 
in it, in order that the bath may be kept quite hot, but without boil- 
ing; for, should the bath boil, it would cause the silk to open, and t© 
become flossy, more particularly the fine silk. 

Whilst this bath is preparing^ the hanks are to be put upon the pegs, 
or pins, and w^hen the bath is ready, the silk is to be put into it, and 
left therein, until all the part dipped is wholly freed from its gum; 
which will be easily seen, by the whiteness and flexibility which the 
silk acquires when deprived of it. The hanks are then placed again 
on the rods, to undergo the same operation in the parts not yet steeped; 
they are then to be taken out of the bath, in proportion as they are 

* Philosophy of Permanent Colors, vol. 1. p. 289. 

\ Aniiiiles de Chimie, June, 1810. 

\ Nouveau Manuel du Teihturier par Balllot, Maitre Teinturier. — Paris, 1810. 



iba i 175 J 

lound divested of their gum, because the hanks which have been first 
soaked, are always sooner freed from the gum than the other. 

The silk, being thus ungummed, is to be wrung upon the pins to 
remove the soap in it; then to be dressed; that is to say, it is to be ar- 
ranged upon the pins, and upon the hands, in order to disentangle it; 
then a cord is to be run through the hanks, to keep them down during 
the boiling: this is termed putting on the line. About eight or nine 
hanks may be placed upon a cord; after this, the silks are to be put 
into bags of strong coarse linen. These bags are to be fourteen or fif- 
teen inches wide, and four or five feet long, and closed at both ends, 
but open the whole length of the side. When the silk is placed in 
them, they are to be stitched up the full length of the side with pack 
thread, W'hich is to be knotted at the end when the sewing is done. 
From twenty-five to thirty pounds of silk are put into each bag: this 
operation is called bagging. 

After this, a new soap bath is to be prepared like the former, withi 
the same quantity of soap per cent. ; and when it is dissolved, and the 
boiling stopped by means of fresh water, the bags are to be put into 
it, to undergo a strong boiling for a quarter of an hour; when it begins 
to boil over, it is to be checked by a little cold water. During the 
boil, care must be taken to stir often with a bar or stafif, and to bring up 
to the top such bags as are at the bottom, to prevent the silk from burn- 
ing, by lying too long at the bottom of the caldron. This move- 
ment causes the silk to boil with more uniformity and readiness. 
This operation is performed with silks which are to remain white.* 

Of the boiling of Silks which are to he died. 

For boiling silks intended for common colors, we put twenty pounds 
of soap to each cwt. of raw silk. The process of boiling is the 
same as the one just described, with this difierence only, that, as 
the silk is not to be freed from its gum, the boiling is to continue three 
hours and a half, or four hours, taking care to fill up, from time to 
time, with water. 

If the silks are intended to be died blue, or iron gray, sulphur, or 
other colors, which require to be set in a very deep white ground, in 
order to acquire the desired beauty, there are to be used thirty pounds 

* The process for ungiimmlng and boiling silk for white, is more fall in Homasse^ 
and may be seen in Dr. Cooper's work. The process for dying fine crimson is that 
long since published by Macquer, and is given by Dr. Cooper, Vitalis, Berg^ues, {a) 
and Baillot. The passage having been translated from the last author, and printed 
before this fact was discovered, it is retained; the receipt is probably the best extant. 

Before diers condemn any process, they ought to reflect upon the following causes, 
which more or less influence their success. 1. The purity of the water. 2. The de- 
gree of heat to which it is raised. 3. The nature of the metal of the boiler. 4. Its 
state of cleanliness. 5. The length of time in which the article is boiled. 6. The 
quality of the vegetable die, as connected with its growth, preparation, time of dn^- 
ing the plant, the age of the infusion. 7. The purity of the mordant, and of the 
acids and salts used to fix it; mode of using them; the proportions used. 8. Tho 
state of tlie atmosphere when the dying process is going on. There may even be 
other causes, which contribute to success or defeat. 

'aH-Mrtrtu Teintorier, Pari?. 1827. 

24 



I 176 ] iSb 

of soap per hundred weight of silk, and the boiling is to continue, as 
before, during three or four hours. When the silks are boiled, they 
are to be taken out of the kettle. For this purpose, a stick is put under 
the bag, resting the stick on the edge of the kettle; and the bag raised 
gradually, and then to be placed upon a shelving table of white pine. 
It is then to be ripped or unstitched, and the silks taken out, in order 
to examine if they be well boiled, or if there be any part of them 
biscuit, (improperly so termed by the diers,) that is to say, if there 
be any parts which the liquid has not sufficiently penetrated. This is 
easily seen, by the yellow and a certain kind of slime remaining on 
those parts. Should this defect be discovered, they must be put in 
again, to boil during some hours; and when the silk is found to be 
well boiled, the bags are to be taken out, in the manner already de- 
scribed. 

The silkc ommonly loses one-fourth of its weight in boiling; there are 
some silks, as the wefts in Spain, Valencia, &c., w^hich lose two or 
three per cent. more. 

Of White. 

There are five sorts of white, or rather principal shades of white, 
which are called China white, India white. Paste white, or milk white, 
silver white, and blue azure white. All these kinds of white differ 
only by very slight shades, but which, however, are perceptible when 
compared with one another. The three first whites are boiled and 
freed from their gum, in the manner before described; but as to the 
silver white, and the blue white, it is proper to put some blue (azure) 
in the process of ungumming, which is done in the following manner. 
Some fine indigo is to be washed twice or thrice, in moderately hot 
water, then pounded in a mortar, boiling water poured over it, and left 
to settle till the gross parts of the indigo subside: the clear water only 
is used: this is what is termed azure by diers. 

When the boiling goes on, the silk is to be stirred up and down, 
and movedl round about by the means of the pot stick or half-bar; but, 
instead of placing the silk on a shelving table to drain, the bags are 
put into the long trough, (barque) full of clear water, opened, and 
taken out of it, leaving the silk behind. The silk is then spread out on 
a cord in the water, after which it is to be taken out and put on the 
shelving table, which is to be laid across the trough over which the 
silk is drained. After that it is to be dressed, and formed into hanks, 
in order to be wound or twisted. The bleeching is to be done as foh 
lows: 

A large kettle is filled with clear water: to thirty buckets-full, about 
one pound and a half of soap are to be added and boiled, and when the 
soap is dissolved, the silk is to be put into the kettle on rods, and 
passed through it as follows: For the China white a little annotto is to 
be mixed with the bath, if we wish to have somewhat of a reddish 
tint. All the skeins arranged on the rods, are to be put into the bath, 
j^nd the rods to be placed with their ends on each brim of th^ vessel; 



187 [ 175 J 

the skeins hanging vertically in the bath; then, one after another, the 
other ends are to be turned and dipped, in order that the parts of the 
skeins which were out, may be soaked in their turn. This operation 
(lisen) is to be repeated until the silk shall have uniformly assumed 
the tint that we wish to give it. For the Indian w^hite, a little azure 
is added, if it be desired to have the silk of a blueish cast. 

With respect to the thread white, and the other whites, a little azure 
iS added, in proportion to the shades which may be wanted. During 
the whole of this process, the bath should be hot, but not boiling; and 
the working is to be continued till the silk shall have acquired a uni- 
form or equal shade, which is usually effected after four or five work- 
ings. 

In proportion as the silks become equally finished, they are to be 
wrung upon the peg; after which, they are to be put upon the sticks in 
the drying room, or fumigated with sulphur, should it be necessary, 
as follows: 

Sulphuring. 

The silks which are to be sulphured, should be extended on poles 
placed at seven or eight feet from the ground, in a high apartment; 
without a chimney, or else a lofty garret where the air may freely cir- 
culate, by leaving the windows and doors open. For every hundred 
pounds of silk, nearly one pound and a half, or two pounds of roll 
brimstone are to be put into an earthen pan, or iron kettle, at the bot- 
tom of which a layer of ashes is to be placed. The rolls of brimstone 
are to be coarsely pounded, and placed in a heap upon the ashes; one 
of the bits of brimstone is to be lighted at a candle, and then applied 
to several parts of the heap to be set on fire. The apartment is then 
to be well closed; if there be a chimney in it, care must be taken to 
•stop it up well, to prevent the fumes of the brimstone from escaping; the 
brimstone is to be left burning under the silk during the night. The 
next day, the door and windows are to be opened, in order to let the 
smell of the brimstone escape, and to dry the silk, which will suffice in 
summer. 

In winter, after the smell is dissipated, the windows are to be closed, 
and live coals in chafing dishes, placed there to dry the silks. 

The fumigation with brimstone gives a certain firmness to the silk. 
There are stuffs which are always manufactured with raw silks, 
that is, silk reeled off dry from the cocoons, retaining all their gum 
and their natural stiffness, because those stuffs are designed to be firm ; 
such as the silk laces, known in commerce by the name of blond laces, 
gauzes, and others of the kind; nor are these silks boiled; all the other 
preparations for dying, are however applied to them. But then those 
which are naturally the whitest must be chosen, and immersed in the 
water, then wrung and sulphured; and after that they must receive 
the azure in the clear water, be wrung again, and fumigated with 
brimstone the second time . 

Experience has taught, that we may proceed as well by plunging 
Ihem into the soap bath, as for the bleaching, and heated to such a de- 
gree that the hand may be kept in it. 



[ 175 ] 188 

They may be worked in this bath, adding a little azure to it, if ne 
cessary. When they are at the proper point, they are to be well 
washed in the river, which gives them the firmness they had lost in 
the soap water; afterwards they are to be wrung and sulphured. 

The fine Nankin or China silks, which are naturally of a very fine 
white, are in no need of this operation.* 

We owe to Beaume the discovery of a process by which the natu- 
ral stifihess of the silk is preserved, while it is rendered perfectly 
similar to that of China, with which they manufacture gauzes, blond 
lace, ribbons, &:c. 

This process consists in digesting, for twelve hours, six pounds of 
silk, in a mixture of forty-eight pounds of alcohol, at thirty degrees, 
and 12 ounces of muriatic acid, at fifteen degrees of concentration. 
' This liquor is poured oflf when it has become slightly colored, and 
replaced with alcohol, which we pour over the silk until no more co- 
loring matter passes oflf with it. It is then covered with a similar mix- 
lure of alcohol and acid, as at first, which is allowed to stand on it 
two or three days, or until the silk be perfectly white. It is then 
freed from any remains of the acid and alcohol, by washing it in cold 
water. 

The silk bleached by this method and loosely dried, is without lus- 
tre. It ought to be strongly extended while dripping wet, and left to 
dry in this state of extension.! 

Of Mwniing. 

After having washed the silks, and divested them of the soap by 
giving them a beetling, a line or cord is passed through them, as when 
they are put to boil. They are put into the alum, all strung together, 
taking care that the hanks be not too much rolled up, or folded upon 
one another, and that the bundles, (cordees,) be not too much in the 
air, or at the surface, so that the whole may be well steeped. They 
are to be left in this state during eight or nine hours, commonly from 
night till morning, J afterwards they are to be washed and wrung with 
the hand, over the vessel: they are then carried back to the river to be 
washed, which is called refreshing; and beetled when necessary. 

The proportion of alum to be used, for a cask or tub of forty or fifty 
buckets full, is forty or fifty pounds, which should be first dissolved in 
a kettle of hot water; care must be taken, in pouring the solution of 
alum into the tub, to stir up and mix it, because the coldness of the 
water might produce a crystallization or congelation, as diers term it. 
We may put into such a bath about one hundred and fifty pounds of 
silk, without being under the necessity of adding more alum; but 
when we perceive that it begins to be weak, then there must be twenty 
or twenty-five pounds of alum dissolved in it, with the same precau- 

* Baillot, p. 98. 

t Chemistry applied to the Arts, by ehaptal, p. 422. Paris, \W17. 

^ A dier says that four hours of the alum steeping' is enou.^h- 



1S9 C 175 3 

lions as bel'ore given; and we should continue thus to add more alum, 
in proportion to the silks which are to be impregnated therewith, until 
the bath begins to have a bad smell; it is then to be drawn off, after 
steeping in it the silks intended for deep or dark colors, as brown, 
chestnut, &c. &c. and thrown away, the long trough (barque) cleaned, 
and a new bath to be got ready. 

The silk must be steeped in the alum water whilst it is cold; if it 
were warm, the silk would lose its lustre. 

Observations on Mum. 

As alum has been emphatically termed the "soul of dying," it is 
of immense importance to use it in a state of purity; on this account 
the following remarks are given. 

It is often combined with a portion of iron, which defeats the inten- 
tion of the dier. To free it from this metal. Dr. Cooper* directs to 
'^dissolve it in boiling water, and expose for a week or a fortnight in 
shallow vessels to the air. The iron will gradually be oxyded, and 
separate in the form of rust. Filter the solution, evaporate the water, 
and re-crystallize it." M. Vitalis directs to dissolve the alum, and 
crystalizeit: pour off the liquor that remains, and dry the crystals on 
absorbent paper. 

The presence of iron in alum is easily discovered by dissolving a 
small portion of this salt in distilled water, or in rain water, and add- 
ing a few drops of a solution of prussiate of potash. If the alum con- 
tains iron, a blue precipitate will immediately take place, which will 
be more or less deep, in proportion to the quantity of iron contained 
in the alum. 

Alum varies much in its composition; sometimes it is an acid sul- 
phate of alumine and potash: at others, in place of the latter, ammonia 
is found; and finally, both potash and ammonia enter into the com- 
pound, but although thus variously formed, it is equally proper for 
dying.* The regular form of alum is inoctoedral crystals; and when 
thus found, it is a definite compound. 

Inquiry has been made of the writer, as to the proper quantity of 
alkali to neutralize the excess in alum of sulphuric acid, which is inju- 
rious to colors. No positive quantity can be prescribed. The only 
certain mode to neutralize the acid, is to add a solution of alkali, until 
the earth of alum begins to precipitate. We may then be sure that the 
acid is fully neutralized. 

The Indigo -Blue Vat. 

For eight pounds of indigo, take six pounds of the best potash, from 
three to four ounces of madder, for each pound of potash, and eight 
pounds of bran, watered several times, in order to carry off its flour. 
When washed, press it to carry off most of its water, and place it at 

• Treatise on Dying, page 25, Philadelphia, 1815, 

t Vitalis, Cours Elementairc de Teinture, page 107 — Paris, 1827. 



[ 175 ] i9U 

the bottom of the vat; boil the potash a quarter oi an hour, in a kettle 
containing nearly the two-thirds of what it will hold; then leave it to 
settle, and put out the fire. 

Two or three days previously, eight pounds of indigo should have 
been set to steep in about one bucket of hot water; in this, it is to be 
carefully washed, changing the water, which assumes a reddish color. 

Some diers begin by boiling indigo in a ley made of one pound of 
potash, and two buckets of water: after which, it is to be pounded, wet 
as it is, in a mortar; when it begins to form a paste, some of the liquid 
just boiled is to be poured quite hot over it, till the mortar be full, and 
then rubbed for a certain time; the liquid is left to settle for some mo- 
ments, and the clear part taken off and set apart in a kettle, or put into 
the vat; then pour an equal quantity of the boiled liquid over the indigo, 
remaining in the mortar, which is to be rubbed again, and the clear 
part taken off, and put into the kettle, as at first. Repeat this opera- 
tion till the whole of the indigo be used, with the greatest part of the 
liquor of the bath. It is then to be poured by kettles-full over the bran 
in the bottom of the vat: then pour over it the rest of the brevet or re- 
freshing liquor, with its sediment or grounds. The whole is then stir- 
red or mixed with a stick, or wooden hoe, and left without fire, till the 
degree of its heat moderates, so as that we can bear the hand in the 
bath ; then a little fire is to be set round the vat to keep up the same 
degree of warmth; it must continue thus till it be perceived that the li- 
quor begins to turn green, which may be discovered by the help of a 
bit of white silk dipped in it. 

When it is in a state indicating that the process goes on well, give it 
a stirring with a stick, or hoe, in order to forward it, and to see if it in- 
cline to be mature; then let it settle till a scum, or brown and coppery 
pellicle is seen rising to the surface, which shows that the bath is ready. 

In order to be sure that it is ripe, observe if it be well crusted, and if, 
on blowing upon it, there be instantly a cream or scrum re-produced, 
instead of that which has been just set aside, it is then left to repose 
for three or four hours; after which make a new liquor: for this purpose 
the necessary quantity ot water is to be put into a kettle, and boil in it 
two pounds of potash and four ounces of madder, as was done the 
first time; this new liquor is to be stirred up, then left to settle during 
four hours, at which time the tub is in a condition for dying. 

Silk diers commonly have no other bath than that which has been 
just described; however, they might employ another for the green 
colors. This liquor is made like the preceding one, excepting that 
a half pound of madder is to be used for every pound of potash. This 
die is much greener than the former, and the color it gives is more 
lasting on silk, with a lustre equal to that given by the usual die. 
When the liquor of this vat has exhausted its coloring property, it 
becomes ruddy, like beer; whereas the liquor of the former becomes 
blackish. 

The vat for the above quantity of indigo must be five feet deep, from 
two to two and a half diameter at the mouth, and from one to one 
foot, and a half at the base, so as to resemble an inverted sugar loaC 



191 I 115 ] 

To make the ditierent shades of blue, put into this new vat the shades 
intended to be the deepest; they are to be died by keeping them more 
or less time in it, in proportion as the liquor becomes weak, until it be- 
gins to be exhausted, and the shades which the silk takes, after having 
remained in it two or three minutes at most, begin to appear faint. 
When the liquor is so far weakened that it begins to lose its green, re» 
fresh it, to give it new strength, by a kettle-full of a decoction composed 
of onepound of pearl ash, two ounces of madder, and one handful of wash- 
ed bran, boiled together for a quarter of an hour in water, or in a por- 
tion of the liquor in the vat, if it be still full enough for that. The li- 
quor is to be stirred up, after these additions, and left to settle at least 
for two or three hours, before we begin to die with it. In order to die 
fine blues, it is proper to have a fresh vat: the light blues colored in 
this fresh weak liquor, are always more lively than those which arc 
made in a liquor which has served for coloring deep blue. 

Fine CiHmson^ 

The silks intended to be died in crimson with cochineal, should be 
boiled in the proportion of twenty pounds of soap to an hundred pounds 
of silk, without any azure, because the slight yellow tint which remains 
in the silk, when it is freed from its gum, only with this quantity of soap, 
is favorable to this color. 

After washing and beetling the silks at a stream, in order to clear 
them from the soap, they are to be put into the alum solution in its full 
strength; and left in it from night till morning, or about seven or eight 
hours. After this, the silks are to be washed, and twice beetled at the 
river. During this interval, the bath is to be prepared in the following 
manner: The long trough is charged with river water, about one-half> 
or two-thirds, and, when boiling, some gall-nuts, powdered are to be put 
into it, and suffered to boil for a while; then put from four drachms to 
two ounces of them for every pound of silk; if the gall-nuts are pounded 
very fine, and passed through a hair-sieve, they may be put in at the 
same time with the cochineal. 

When the silks are washed and beetled, they are to be put upon rods 
by hanks: these hanks may be thick, because the crimson color is not 
subject to be unequally set. The cochineal, pounded and sifted, is 
then to be thrown into the bath, and well stirred, and must receive 
live or six boils; from two to three ounces for each pound of silk, are to 
be put in, according to the required shade. In order to give the most 
common shade or color, the proportion of cochineal is two ounces and 
a half: there are seldom put more than three ounces, except when one 
dies some particular variety. 

These ingredients are to be put into clear, pure, and soft water, in a 
kettle of pure tin, and not of copper, or brass tinned. This is a rule 
from which the diers of the British East India Company never de- 
viate. When the cochineal and the galls have undergone a boiling, 
put into the bath, for every pound of cochineal, one ounce of a solution 
of tin Iq cqita regias called composition, which is made in the follow 



[ 175 J 19ii 

ing manner: one pound of spirits of nitre, (nitric acid,) two ounces ot 
sal ammoniac, six ounces of grain tin. The tin, and the sal ammoni- 
ac, are to be put into a sand-stone pot of sufficient capacity ; upon these 
pour about twelve ounces of water, then add the spirits of nitre, and let 
the solution take place. 

This composition contains much more sal ammoniac and of tin, than 
that which is employed for the scarlet of cochineal upon wool. The 
composition is added in the proportion of one ounce to a pound of silk, 
when the galls and the cochineal have been made to boil. The kettle 
is left to cool a little, by opening the door of the furnace or stove: 
the silk is put into the vat, and to be worked from five to seven times; 
after this, the bath must boil during two hours: in that time, care must 
be taken to work the silks now and then. At the expiration of this 
time, the fire is to be withdrawn, and the silks are to be wholly im- 
mersed; they are to be left there five or six hours, and even if the crim- 
son be died in the evening, they may be left in it till the next morn- 
ing. By this means they receive a fine half die: they are to be wash- 
ed, and to get two beetlings, wrung as usual, and then spread upon 
the perches to be dried. 

Chaptal says, that, by giving silk a ground of yellow, before dying 
it in the above manner, a poppy, or flame color, may be obtained, as 
handsome, and more solid and economical than that produced by the 
use of the carthamus, or bastard saffron,* 

Of Green. 

This color is composed of yellow and blue: it is difficult to give it 
to silk, by reason of the inconvenience attending the blue bath, which 
is subject to be checkered, or to take a variegated color which becomes 
still more perceptible in the green than in the pure blue. In place of 
applying the yellow on the blue, we give the blue upon the yellow, 
and proceed thus: 

The boiling of the silk for these colors is the same as for the common 
colors. After the silk is boiled, it is to be well impregnated with the 
aluminous water, then rinsed in the river, and distributed in little 
hanks of four or five ounces. This precaution is necessary to give 
the yellow ground to all silks in general which are intended to be died 
green; because the silk being thus distributed, has the advantage of be- 
ing uniformly died. Weldt is to be boiled as for the yellow, (which 
see:) and a bath of it prepared with clear water, and to be so strong as 
to give a good ground of lemon color. The silk is to be worked in the 
bath, with great attention, because the inequality of color in the ground 
is easily perceptible in the green: and when we judge that the ground 
is nearly at its height, some fibres of the silk should be dipped, in or- 
der to see whether the color has sufficient plenitude or ground: if it 
has not enough, add the decoction of weld, and make a new trial. 

• Chemistry applied to the Arts, p. 466. 
!• Dier's weld — Reseda Luteola. 



193 [ 17^ J 

"When the color takes well, the silk is to be wrung, washed in a 
stream and beetled, if it be thought proper. The silk is then to be 
dressed, re-formed into hanks suitable for the vat, then steeped, one 
hank after another, in the blue vat; finally, wrung and dried with care 
and celerity. 

The fifteen or sixteen clearest shades of this kind of green, need only 
to be steeped in the vat, in order to be entirely completed. 

•For the Pistachio green, if the vat be too strong, air the hank, when 
taking it out, without washing it, clap it with the hands; that is, hold- 
ing it in one hand, and clapping it lengthwise with the other, to sepa- 
rate the threads, and thus receive the air, which causes the color to 
brighten uniformly: some threads are to be washed, in order to prove 
whether the color be good : the silk is then washed. For deeper greens, 
of this shade, add to the weld a decoction of logwood, or of Venice- 
sum ach. 

For very deep greens, such as duck-green and bottle-green, add a 
little copperas.* The apple-green and sea-green, require a light yel- 
low. We shall be less liable to give too deep a shade of yellow, by 
taking the precaution to die in the weld baths, which have already 
been used, for the silk being strongly alumed, will be apt to take too 
strong a hue in the new bath. Raw silk, reeled off dry, {soie crue,) 
is died precisely in the same manner, after having been immersed.t 

JLilac. 

As lilac is a very light and brilliant tint of the violet, or of the pur- 
ple, we must apply the blue with much caution, or sparingly; and, 
as commonly the baths are too strong, it is the custom to mix a little 
of the fresh or new bath, with some potash in clear cold water, in order 
to prepare a bath on purpose for blueing the lilacs at will. 

When the liquor has been put into the bath, it is to be immediately 
stirred up, then it assumes a green color which imperceptibly dimin- 
ishes; we wait till the bath begins to lose a little of its first green color, 
and approaches to that of indigo, in order to put the silks into it. The 
potash helps to make the archil blue, because it is in general the effect 
of all the alkalies to render every red more of a violet tint 

^^nother Process, 

The process consists in employing the chemical blue with a quantity 
of archil, in proportion to the intensity of the die that is desired. 

Violet with Logwood. 

Take died silks impregnated with the alum water, and washed 
in the usual way, boil water with logwood cliips, as done with respect 
*o Brazil wood: it is destined to give a blue. 

* Baillot, page 115. 

' Vitalis: Cours Elementaire de Teinture, p. 50? 



[ 175 j iy4 

This die ought lo be made cold, because, when the logwood is warm jr 
the color it gives is spotted and not equal; besides it is much more dull 
and less handsome. 

The decoction cannot be preserved more than three weeks or a 

"rtionth. 

Violet with Brazil ivood and Logwood. 

To make this violet, the alumed silks, after being rinsed, as common, 
are put into a bath of Brazil wood of the usual degree of heat, and af- 
ter they have undergone this bath, add a decoction of logwood, and 
work them therein, and when the color is as full as desired, add to the 
bath a little potash ley j then wash the silks, wring and dry in the usual 
manner. 

If we begin by the logwood, we should use the bath cold, on ac- 
count of the uneven die it gives when it is hot, and which it is even 
subject to produce when taken from the bath and exposed to heat. This 
does not take place in the method we have given for it: for it is not 
necessary to give the logwood a cooling by this process, because the 
silks are impregnated with the die of the Brazil wood. 

Instead of putting the potash into the bath, it is sometimes proper to 
make a bath of alum, with clear water, for the alteration of the tint. 
This ought to be adopted when wc apprehend the silks may be too 
much charged with the die, by leaving them long in the bath. 

Violet with the Brazil wood and Archil. 

After having boiled and impregnated the silk with the alum water, 
it is to be put into a bath, more or less clear, of Brazil wood, according 
to the shade intended to be given; and, when it is taken out, the silk is 
to be beetled in a river, then to be put into a bath of archil, in order to 
complete the color. It is to be washed a second time, and to receive a 
beetling. After this it is to be put into the blue vat, then wf ung and 
dried with the same despatch and precision as the greens and blues. 

Of Yellow on Silk in hanks. 

Silk destined to be died yellow, is boiled in the proportion of twenty 
pounds of soap to each hundred pounds of silk. 

After the boiling, it is to be w^ashed and put into the alum> and after 
being washed again, as usual, (called refreshing,) and dressed; then io 
be put upon rods in hanks, of about seven or eight ounces each, and 
worked in the yellow bath. 

For dying clear yellow, (jaune franc,) called by diers yellow in 
grain, they commonly employ no other ingredient than weld. 

Put into the caldron about two pounds of weld to each pound of silk; 
and, in order that the bunches of the plant may mix well with the water, 
lay on them large blocks of wood. After a quarter of an hour of boiling, 
the bath is to be strained, and left to cool till the hand can be borne in 



19o [ I7d ] 

it J then put in the silk, and work it therein until it become of an evert 
color. If the liquor be not enough to fill the long trough (barque,) add 
water, and before the bath is cold, so that there may be the same degree 
of heat mentioned above. In general, all the long troughs or caldrons, in 
which dying is to be effected, should be full; the silk being plunged in, 
till about two inches distance from their brims. Whilst this operation is 
going on, weld is to be boiled a second time in a new water, and then 
taken out at one end of the long trough, and placed on a shelving white 
pine table, or else on the top of the trough. Then about one-half of 
the bath is to be thrown out, and to be supplied with the second liquor 
from the new bath of the plant, in the same quantity that has been 
taken from the first, taking care to stir up the bath, in order to mix the 
whole well. This new bath may be employed somewhat hotter than 
the first; still, however, the heat must only be moderate, because, if it 
were otherwise, we would destroy one part of the color which the silk 
had already taken. 

Work in this new bath, as on the former occasion; and, during this 
time, dissolve potash, in the proportion of about one pound for twenty 
pounds of silk. For this purpose, put the potash into a small kettle, 
then pour into it some of the second weld liquor boiling hot, stirring up 
the potash. This little bath is to be left to settle, and when it is clear, 
lift out a second time the silks, putting them on the slielving table, and 
throw into the bath two or three ladles-full of the clearest part of the pot- 
ash water. The bath is to be well stirred up, and the silks to be dip- 
ped again, and worked* anew. After seven or eight workings, one of 
the hanks is to be wrung upon the pin, in order to see whether the color 
be full enough, and of a proper yellow. If it be not sufficiently so, add 
again a little of the potash bath, and proceed as directed above, until 
the silk receives the desired shade. 

To die a yellow approaching to that of Jonquille, at the time of 
putting the potash into the bath, we must add also to it some annotto, 
in proportion to the color required. 

The slight shades of yellow, such as pale lemon, or Canary bird 
color, ought to be made on a very white ground; for this purpose, 
the silks are to be boiled with thirty pounds of soap for every hun- 
dred weight of silk. If they be not sufficiently blued (azured) for 
giving them these shades, some ladles-full are to be taken out of the 
bath of boiled weld, and some mixed with clear water, with a small 
portion of the liquor of the vat. The silks are then to be put into 
this bath, and steeped and washed as usual; and, if it be perceived 
that the shade is not deep enough, some of the weld liquor must be 
added, and from the vat also, till the desired shade is obtained. 

For the deeper shades of lemon color, boil the weld the same way 
as for the yellow, and add a certain quantity of it to clear water, in 
proportion to the desired fulness. Put into it also some of the liquor 
in the tub, if the shade require it: but the deep lemon colors may be 
boiled in the usual way like the yellows. It must be noted that the 

* In the edition for the House of Representatives, tbesf words ^vere improper!}- 
printed, <' washed," and ** wa^'hes." — Kpitdb. 



f^ 175 j i^r» 

blue is not to be added from the vat in these colors, except only wiiei^ 
we desire to have a greenish tint. These shades are often liable to be 
too deep, when they are impregnated with too much alum. In order 
to avoid this inconvenience, instead of applying the alum like the 
others, we may make apart for them a weak and small alum bath, in 
which they may be worked ; or else, without giving the alum water 
separately, only a little alum may be put into the same weld-bath. 

To die Blue. 

The folio wmg proportions of the articles necessary for a cold blue 
vat, were given by an extensive silk dier of Philadelphia. "^ 

'^One pound of indigo to every pound of copperas: to 120 gallons 
of water, add 16 pounds of lime, and 6 pounds of indigo/' 

Blue. By Mons. Raymond.\ 

Previously to the year 1811, the silks died blue were dull; but, in 
that year, M. Raymond invented a method of giving silk a deep and 
brilliant color, which is now generally adopted, and is known by his 
name. Here follows the process. When the silk has been cleansed, 
immerse it for a quarter of an hour, at the ordinary temperature, in 
■water containing about one-twentieth part of its weight of the sul- 
phate of the peroxide of iron,:|: wash, and hold it for half an hour in 
a bath, nearly boiling, of soap and water; wash it again, and put it 
in a cold and very weak solution of prussiate of potash, soured by sul- 
phuric acid, or by muriatic acid. As soon as it is immersed, it be- 
comes blue, and nothing more is wanting, than, in about a quarter of 
an hour, to wash and dry it. In this operation, the silk imbibes a 
»iertain quantity of feruginous salt; the soap in the water destroys or 
neutralizes the acid of this salt; the sulphuric acid, or the muriatic 
acid, unites with the potash of the prussiate of potash, and the prus- 
sic acid is transferred upon the oxide of iron retained by the silk. 

Silk thus died becomes dull in time, when much exposed to the 
sun, but will regain its brilliancy by being kept in the dark. 

Chaptal says, in order to obtain the Turkish blue, which is the 
deepest of all, it is necessary to immerse the silks in a very strong 
warm bath of savory, before putting it into the vat. 

* The late Mr. John Dougal. 

•y Traite de Chimie, par J. L. Thenard, torn. 4, p. 214. Paris, 1826. 

\ According to Thenard, the sulphate of the peroxide of iron is procured in the 
following mode: 

<» Expose a solution of green copperas to the air: it then slowly absorbs oxygen, 
and the sulphate of the peroxide is precipitated in the form of a yellow powder: tlic 
neutral sulphate of the peroxide remains in the solution, to which it gives a red tinge." 

A manufacturer of Prussian blue, in Philadelphia, procures it in this w.iy : dry cop- 
peras by exposing it to a heat; then submit it to a more violent heat, until it is con- 
verted into a grayish red-colored substance, which is the red oxide of iron, combined 
with a portion of the red sulphate. As it is deliquescent, it must be carefully kept 
from the air until it is about to be used. 



19/ [ 175 ] 

When our object is to obtain the royal blue, which is also very deep 
and permanent, cochineal is employed in place of savory. 

This last blue may be successfully imitated, by first immersing the 
silk in a solution of 1 oz. 7i drs. of verdigris, to 1 lb. 4 oz. 4 drs. of 
silk; the silk is afterwards disposed in a bath of logwood, in which it 
assumes a blue color, which is fixed by passing it through the vat. 

Silk to be diea blue, is usually boiled in a bath composed of 44 lb. 
2 oz. 4 drs. of soap, to 110 lb. 5 oz. 10 drs. of silk; it is carefully 
washed, and twice put through running water, after which it is made 
up into skeins, and plunged into the vat by means of the wooden roller, 
until it has acquired the desired shade. It is then wrung by the hand, 
shaken out in the air, afterwards washed, and again wrung and hung up 
to dry. 

When silk is to be died blue without boiling, the whitest kinds are 
chosen; they are dipped in water with a view of disposing them more 
readily to imbibe the die. 

Yelloiv^ 

Alum, 3 oz. to 1 pound of silk; sugar of lead, 1 oz. to one pound ot 
alum; fustic, one pound, to one of silk; water, one or two gallons, in 
proportion to the required shade. Immerse the silk over night in the 
solution of alum and sugar of lead, take it out, wring and die it in 
the fustic: the high price of weldt prevents the use of it: when used, 
the proportion is the same as that of fustic. 

Chaptal says, that silk intended for a yellow color, is boiled with 
22 lbs. 1 oz. 1 dr. of soap, to 110 lbs. 5 oz. 10 drs. of silk; it is after- 
wards washed, alumed, and put on the rods. 

The yellow bath is prepared by boiling 2 lbs. 3 oz. 5 drs. of weld to 
the pound of silk, during a quarter of an hour. This bath is strained 
through a sieve, and cooled until the hand can be kept in it, before the 
silk is immersed in the vat. 

The weld is boiled a second time, with a fresh portion of water, and 
employed to supply the waste, and keep up the heat of the first bath, 
into which more silk is put until it be sufficiently exhausted. 

With the view of extracting every particle of color from the weld.l 
and of imparting a golden hue to the yellow produced by it, 1 lb. 4 oz. 
4 drs. of potash, to 22 lbs. 1 oz. 2 drs. of silk, are put into a caldron; 
the second bath of weld is poured boiling hot on these ashes, and well 
stirred, to hasten the solution. When the bath is become clear, they 
gradually transfer a portion of it to the first bath, and after stirring It 
again, immerse the silk. A golden hue may be imparted to yellow by 
means of annotto.§ 

The United States abound in vegetables producing a yellow color, 
and, with proper mordants, may be found highly valuable. 

* Mr. John Dougal. 

I The weld plant should be cultivated by our farmers: no crop will pay better 

■^ Absurdly called " woad," in the London translation of Chaptal . 

■^ Chemistry applied to the Arts, p. 484. 



[ 175 J i9b 

The following are worthy of serious attention: — 

1. Xanthoriza Jlpiifolia, or x. tinctorla, parsley-leaved root, yel- 
low root. See Dr. Woodhouse's experiments on this plant in the Do- 
jnestic Encyclopedia, article Xanthoriza. 

2. H37drastis Canadensis^ yellow root. The simple tincture of the 
roots imparts to silk a rich yellow, and, with an appropriate mordant, 
might be permanently fixed. 

3. Hopea tinctoria, horse laurel, horse honey, yellow leaf. This 
tree abounds in the low parts of Virginia, in West Tennessee, the up- 
per parts of North and South Carolina, Georgia, and, according to 
Michaux, generally in the limits of the pine barrens.* 

This author says, that, with alum, it dies a beautiful yellow on wool 
and cotton; it would doubtless succeed equally well on silk. The 
•leaves only are used. Dr. Ramsayt says, that the late Mr. Felder, of 
Orangeburg, procured a paste from the leaves, and those of a species 
of cassia, called yellow indigo, for which he obtained a guinea per 
pound, during the American war. Unfortunately the process died 
%vith him. Dr. R. mentions several other plants, which yield a yellow 
color. 

4. Bow wood, yellow wood, Osage apple tree: Madura «/2wrazi/2«c«. 
This abounds in Missouri, J and, according to Mr. Nuttal,§ also, in the 
Arkansas Territory, near Style's farm, a few miles from the Kia- 
mesha river, on the great prairie. 

5. Hypericum perforatum, St. John's wort. This plant is not a 
native of the United States, but like the pretty, but troublesome weed 
ransted, was imported from Europe, and has become a pest to the 
farmers of Pennsylvania. The flowers and summits, filled in with 
seeds, contain a juice, soluble in water, in spirit of wine, and vinegar. 
It diffuses through the first two liquids a red color, and in the latter a 
most splendid crimson: when combined with acids or metallic solucions^ 
it presents a beautiful yellow color. 

To die cloth, wool, silk, and cotton, yellow, it is sufficient to im- 
merse them in water, properly impregnated with the juice of this plant, 
and a certain quantity of mordant. The best mordant is alum and 
potash, in which the stuffs are to remain for some time: for it is on the 
length of the time, the quantity of mordant, and the heat employed, 
that the fixity of the color, and the shades resulting from it, depend. 
When little mordant is used, the die is of di yellow color; by increasing 
the mordant, it inclines to green, and, by adding a solution of tin in 
nitro-muriatic acid, it assumes rose, cherry, and crimson shades, all 
very beautiful. The alum generally employed for all extractive dies 
does not succeed well in the process here alluded to; the addition of pot- 
ash is essentially necessary,|| because it decomposes this salt, precipi- 
tates its earth, dissolves a considerable, portion of it, and it is this alkaline 

* North American Sylva, vol. 3, p. 54. It also abounds in the Mississippi State, 
f History of South Carolina, vol. 2, p. 249, 
:f Bradbury *s Travels. 
% Nuttal's Travels.. 

i Sep nntf on AT'im 



1^9 [ 1'^ J 

biiit, with ail earthy base, which, in this operation, becomes the true 
mordant, especially as the coloring principle resides in a matter almost 
purely resinous. 

The juice of St. John's wort, united to the mordant here mentioned^ 
gives to paper a beautiful yellow color, and to skins."* 

The comparative merits of the foregoing yellow dies with one an- 
other, and with the inestimable quercitron bark, may be tried by prac- 
tical diers. 

Toppy, 

The poppy color is procured by precipitating the red of bastard saf- 
fron,! held in solution by potash. With this view, when silks are 
washed, drained, and put on the rods, lime juice is poured into the 
bath, till it acquire a cherry color. It is then well stirred, and the 
silk repeatedly worked in it, until it has acquired a sufficient color. 

To produce a lively, full poppy, the silk is wrung on coming out of 
the first bath, which it exhausts, and is then put into a second. 

Five or six baths are requisite to impart to it a flame color. The 
poppy color is heightened by putting the silk through tepid water, 
acidulated with lime juice. A ground of annotto, three or four shades 
paler than aurora, is requisite for silks, before exposing them to the 
coloring principle of the carthamus plant. 

The poppy color communicated by this last die, maybe successfull}- 
imitated by the employment of Brazil wood. 

The color thus produced is termed false poppy, to distinguish it 
from the true. To the silk is given a good ground of annotto, by boil- 
ing it with this die; after which it is washed, refreshed, passed through 
alum, and then worked in a bath of Brazil wood, to which a small 
portion of soap water has been added, j: 

Black. 

The following directions are given by a late author to die silk black, <S 
and refer to raw silk {sole crue) which has been reeled off dry. 

The silk being cleansed, is to be bleached by being sulphured, or 
rather to be steeped in water charged with sulphureous acid, || then 
w^ashed, and passed through water in which a sm^all quantity of soap has 
been dissolved; then take three-fourths of the weight of silk, of gall- 
nuts, make a strong decoction of them, and boil the silk therein for a 
short time: let it remain in the vat for thirty-six hours, then wash and 
wring it. The silk is so saturated with tannin, that 100 lbs. of silk, 
thus galled, will weigh 125lbs. Put in the bath copperas and gum, ac- 
cording to the quantity to be died, heat it, dip the silk therein, and, 
when deeply black, put it in a trough of cold water, in which it is to 

* Extract from a paper by C. Baumach, Annales de Chimie, No. 137. 
■\ Carthamus tinctorius. 

i Chaptal, p. 485. 

^ Manuel Complet du Teinturier, par M. Riffault, p. 95. Paris, 1825. 

' The strength of the acid impregnation is not mentwned. 



I 175 ] 200 

be turned on a cylinder; then pass it through cold soap suds. As the 
price of Aleppo galls is high, white galls are often used, in the propor- 
tion of eight or ten parts of nuts to two parts of Aleppo galls. Diers 
have a caldron on purpose for black, and when the dying composition 
is exhausted, they renew it by what they called a brevet, (refresher.) 
When the deposite is considerable, it is taken out, and iron filings add- 
ed to the liquid. The dying of the silk is finished by heating the cal- 
dron containing the die, and stirring it, from time to time, to prevent 
the sediment from heating too much. 

The liquor must not boil; add more or less gum and iron solution; 
and, when the gum is dissolved, and the liquid nearly boils, it is left 
for one hour; the silk, divided into three portions, is then immersed, 
each portion in succession. The silk is lightly wrung three times, and 
aired each time. The great point of this operation is, to press out the 
liquor with which the silk is impregnated; and, when it is drained to 
fill it again therewith; and, above all, to expose it to the air, which 
deepens the color. After each portion of silk has been wrung three 
times, the vat is to be heated, and more gum and copperas added, as at 
first. The reheating of the vat is called giving a fire. Two fires are 
commonly given for a light black, and three for a deep die; and some- 
times the silk is left in the vat, after the last fire, for twelve hours. 
Commonly, thirty kilogrammes* of silk are died in one operation. 

This is technically called a heat. If half that quantity is died, only 
one fire is required for a light black. The dying being finished, the 
silk is rinsed on the rods according to art. 

When the silk is died, it must be softened, by immersing it for a 
quarter of an hour in a solution of soap in water, in the proportion of 
from two to three pounds of soap to one hundred of silk. The quan- 
tity of water is not mentioned. It is afterwards wrung and dried. 

Chaptal says: "A very full, clear, permanent black, has been obtain- 
ed by the employment of a solution of iron immediately after a strong 
galling; the stuff'isthen immersed in a decoction of logwood, and next 
into this decoction conjoined with a solution of iron and verdigris: and 
this process is to be repeated till the black be very beautiful. With 
this view, 110 lbs. 5 oz. 10 dr. of silk, 44 lbs. 2 oz. 4 dr. of gall-nuts, 
(i^ lbs. 3 oz. 6 dr. of copperas, calcined to redness, the same quantit)^ 
of logwood, and 11 lbs. 9 dr. of verdigris, were employed. 

The silk is to be first wrung out of tlie galls, allowed to dry, and then 
strongly shaken by the hands, in order to ventilate, and detach from it 
any adhering galls. 

The same process of rubbing, shaking, &c. is to be employed in re- 
spect to the logwood bath; and the silk is to be carefully washed after 
each immersion in the solution of copperas. In the last logwood bath 
is to be dissolved 2 oz. 15 dr. of gum arable, to 1 lb. 4 oz. 4 dr. of silk; 
the black is softened by passing the died silk through soap and water. 

It has been observed, that, by combining vegetable astringents with 
the gall-nuts, a softer and more agreeable color was produced. Oak 

* A TcUo^amme is 2 lbs. ." ox. 5 drachms, avoirdupoi'^ 



201 [ 175 ] 

hark, a species of agaric, pomegranate bark, &c. may be employed for 
this purpose. 

The process hy Vitalis. 

I commence by boiling the silk in the ordinary way, with 20 lbs. of 
soap to 100 lbs. of silk, and, after it is well washed, and freed from the 
soap, it is dried. The skeins are then immersed in a decoction of galls 
in sort, in the proportion of two ounces to a pound of silk. The gall 
bath must be moderately warm. The hanks* are put on the rods, and 
lightly pressed, in order that the gall-iiquor may penetrate them, and 
ensure a uniform color. They are then put in the bath, which must be 
kept warm during fifteen or eighteen hours; after tliis, they are to be 
taken out and dried, and then put in a warm bath of pyrolignate of iron, of 
the strength of five degrees, as marked on the areometer of Baume, and 
dipped for some time; then immersed, and the heat of the bath increased, 
during five or six hours: observing to take them out and air them from 
time to time. After being taken from the iron bath, the silk is wrung 
and dried in the air, or under a shed in moist weather. It then receives 
two beetlings, and is subjected to a new galling, made with the remainvS 
of the former gall-liquor, and an ounce and a half of galls to the pound 
of silk: then taken out, wrung and dried. This second galling is fol- 
lowed by a new bath, made warm, of the pyrolignate of iron, of four de- 
grees of strength, with the precautions before noted. The silk is again 
taken out, wrung, and dried, two more beetlings and a third galling 
given to it, the bath for which must have one ounce and a half of new 
galls to a pound of silk, and the former procedure renewed. It must 
then have another bath of pyrolignate of iron, of three degrees of 
strength, and be dried and washed. For a deep black, a fourth galling 
with one ounce of galls to a pound of silk, followed by a fourth bath ot 
iron pyrolignate, of three degrees of strengtli, will be requisite. Then 
dry and wash carefully. The gum prescribed in the process of Angles,! 
gives a brilliancy which is highly prized by the trade. I supply its 
place, after the silk has been died and worked, by a light bath of warm 
soap and water, into which it is plunged for some time; after which it 
is to be washed and dried for the last time. Finally, my method does 
not exclude the employment of gum, which may be dissolved in the 
bath of the iron pyrolignate. Even vrhere the process of M. Angles, 
pr any similar one, is followed, advantage may be taken of the substitu- 
tion I propose, of the pyrolignate for the copperas. A greater intensity 
and solidity of color will thereby be obtained, and the silk will suffer 
less. 

* A hank weighs tour or five ounces. 
+ See Cooper on Dying-, for the procesF, p. 247. 
26 



- 



TRANSLATION 



FEOM 



A GERMAN TREATISE ON DYING SILK^ 

BY GEORGE WILLIAM HELTERHOFF; 



PUBLISHED AT ERFURT, 



1809. 



/ 



Having discovered, after a diligent and patient comparison of seve- 
ral recent French works on dying, with that of Homassel, which was 
translated and published by Dr. Cooper, several years since, that they 
contained little more than the receipts of this author, the writer was 
induced to search for a German work on dying, in the hope of procur- 
ing original receipts. The work by Helterhoff was loaned and re- 
commended to him by a German manufacturer of silk fringe, &c. ; and 
the following articles pointed out, as worthy of insertion. They were 
accordingly translated j and, it is hoped, will be found useful. 



<295 [ 175 ] 



EXTRACTS FROM A GERMAN TREATISE ON DYING 

SILK. 



Ji handsome Yellow. 

^NoTE — The following" receipts are proportioned to 10 lb. of silk previously boiled.;] 

Take \\ lbs. of alum, 

20 ibs. of common Lady^s (St. Mary's) thistle,* 
\ lb. of woad ashes. 

Dissolve the alum in a kettle containing ten buckets of water, pour 
the solution into a vat, fix your silk upon rods,t and in the usual way, 
steep it in the solution, work it well therein for an hour, take it out, 
wring it, and lay it aside wet, for further use. 

Put ten buckets of water in a kettle, add the St. Mary's thistle, and 
boil it well for a quarter of an hour; run the decoction through a sieve 
into a tub, to separate the coarse from it; let it cool, until you will be 
able to bear your hands in it; steep the silk in the liquor, v/ork it well 
therein for half an hour, then take it out, WTing itj and lay it aside, in 
its wet state, for further use. 

The vessels in which you dress the silk with alum, must be kept, 
during the process of working it, to within a few inches of the top; 
and, should there be occasion to fill up, or to increase the quantity of 
liquor with water, care must be taken not to make it too cool, but to 
preserve, at all times, a degree of heat in which the hand can be bare- 
ly held. While this is doing, the St. Mary's thistle must be put into 
the kettle a second time, with fresh water, and be boiled again. Then- 
take out the silk, dip out some of the liquor, in which you bad pre- 
viously worked the silk, and add as much of the liquor of the second 
boiling to it as was taken therefrom, so that the first quantity will be 
preserved. The liquor must now, as w^ell as each time before you 
steep the silk in it, be stirred well; then steep the silk in the liquor 
again, and work it well therein for half an hour. 

The liquor may, in this latter process, be made a little hotter than 
it was in the first; but be cautious not to make it too hot, as the silk 
would be considerably injured thereby, 

* This ingredient, which has not, as yet, been applied in this work, to the dying of 
yellow colors, is found growinj^ spontaneously in an uncultivated state; but the cul- 
tivated is more esteemed. It flourishes best in a sandy soil, and must be cut as soon. 
as it is of proper ripeness, which may be known by its having attained a handsome 
yellow color. [It is the Carduus Marie — Editoii.] 

t This is to be understood as a general rule before steeping; the direction to at- 
tend it, will not, therefore, be repeated. 



[ 175 ] 206 

During fhls second process woad ashes* are to be dissolved in a ket' 
tie into which you have poured some of the liquor of the second co- 
loring, boiling hot; stir the liquor and woad ashes well, and then let it 
settle: pour some of the clear part of the solution into the yellow li- 
quor, after having first taken out the silk; stir the whole of it well, 
steep the silk in it again, and work it well therein during fifteen mi- 
nutes. At the expiration of this time, or sooner, as you may deem it 
necessary, take out a small quantity of the silk, wring it, and examine 
whether it has retained the required color; should this not be the case, 
a small quantity of the solution of woad ashes must be added to the li- 
quor, the silk steeped in it again, and well worked in the same, until 
the required color be obtained. 

Note. — Should it be desired to heighten this color to a deep colored gold tint, 
add to the solution of woad ashes a quantity of annotto, in propottion to the degree 
of color desired. 

The dying- of light colored yellows is generally attended with many difficulties, as 
they will often be subject to changes in drying; and sometimes they will turn to a 
darker tint than they had while the silk was yet in a wet state; this is caused, prin- 
cipally, by too strong a dressing in alum. It is, therefore, best to give them a weak 
dressing in alum by themselves, or separate from those silks which are intended for 
other colors; and this may then be regulated, according to the degree of the colop 
desired. 

A Citron Yellow, 

Take \\ lbs. of alum, 

8 lbs. of safflower, 
:J lb. of alum. 

Dissolve the alum in a kettle containing ten buckets of water; then 
pour the solution into a vat, steep the silk in it, w^ork it well therein 
for half an hour, wring it, lay it by in its wet state, for further use, 
and throw away the solution of alum as useless. Put again ten buck- 
ets of fresh water in the kettle, add eight pounds of safflower, and the 
quarter of a pound of alum; boil for half an hour, run the decoction 
through a sieve into a vat, steep the silk in the liquor, work it well 
therein a quarter of an hour, v^ring and dry it, fix it on the wringing 
post, wring and beat it well. 

With the rest of the above liquor, a pale yellow^ may yet be died. 

Ji Citroji Yellow, which may be heightened to a handsome gold tint , 

Take If lbs. of alum, 

14 lbs. of safflov/er, 
^ lb. of alum. 
Put ten buckets of water in a kettle, add one and a quarter pounds 
of alum, dissolve it therein, pour the solution into a vat, and work the 
silk in the solution for about half an hour, wring it, and lay it by in 
its wet state, for further use. 

* The woad ashes are chosen for this purpose, on account of possessing the quali- 
ty, better than any other, of dissolving the coloring matter of the Lady's or St Mary's 
thistle, and of incorporating it with the silk. 



S07 [ 175 ] 

Pour ten buckets of fresh water into the kettle, add seven pound? 
of safflower, and boil it half an hour, pour the liquor througli a sieve 
into a vat, and work it well therein for the space of fifteen minutes; 
then wring and dry it. The yellow liquor is now to be poured back 
into the kettle, the remaining seven pounds of the safflower to be put 
into it, together with a quarter of a pound of alum, and the whole to 
be boiled half an hour; then pour the liquor through a sieve into a vat, 
work the silk well in the liquor for half an hour, wring and dry it, 
and then beat it well. By the above process, a handsome citron yel- 
low will be obtained. 

*^ Citron Yellow, in a different way. 

Take li lbs. of alum, 

7 lbs. French berries. 

Put the alum into a kettle, with eight buckets of water: when dis- 
solved, pour it into a vat, immerse the silk in the solution, work it 
well therein for half an hour, take it out, and lay it aside for further 
use in its wet state, and throw away the solution. Then boil ten 
buckets of fresh water, put into it the French berries, boil for three 
quarters of an hour,* pour it through a sieve into a vat, and immerse 
the silk in the liquor, work it well therein for half a hour, wring and 
fix it on the wringing post in the usual manner. 

To make this color deeper or brighter, take more or less than the 
above quantity of the French berries. 

If the liquor, after this process, still retain some of its yellow pro- 
perties, it may be used to color ten pounds of silk, previously prepared 
in a solution of alum, to a pale yellow, or to lay at least the ground 
for a handsome gold tint. 

«/5 Citron Yellow, in another manner. 

Take 2 lbs. of alum, 

6 lbs. quercitron bark, ground. 

Put the alum in a kettle, with ten buckets of fresh water, dissolve it 
therein, and pour the solution into a vat, immerse the silk in it, and 
work it well therein for two hours; wring it, lay it aside wet for fur- 
ther use, and throw away your solution of alum as useless. Then pour 
into a kettle ten buckets of fresh water, and put the ground quercitron 
into it; boil this one hour, take it out, run the decoction through a 
sieve into a pail, immerse the silk in the liquor, and work it well one 
hour in the same; after which, it is to be taken out, wrung and dried; 
fix it on the wringing post, wring it again, &c. when it will have ac- 
quired a beautiful citron yellow. 

The remaining yellow liquor may be used for other purposes, and 
jnay therefore be preserved. I will now give the necessary directions 

* A small quantity of alum may be added to the French berries, and boiled with 
tjiejn whereby the color of the liquor is much improved. 



[ 175 ] 208 

for coloring a handsome pale yellow, with the above remains of the 
yellow liquor. 

Ji Tale Yellow. 

Take 2 lbs. of alum. 

Prepare the silk with alum, as directed in the foregoing receipt, an4 
lay it away for further use. Then warm the liquor, which has been 
used in the coloring of the foregoing operation, put it into a vat, im- 
merse the silk in the liquor, and work it well therein for the space of 
half an hour. This being done, take it out, wring it, fix it on the 
wringing post, wring and beat it well, which v^^ill give it a gloss. 

It is not necessary that the silk should be rinsed in yellow coloring. 

SEVERAL DIRECTIONS FOR DYING V/ITH QUERCITRON BARK. 

*B. Citron Yellow. 

Take 3 lbs. of alum, and 

X lb. 3 ounces of quercitron bark. 

Dissolve the alum in a kettle, with ten buckets of water, pour the 
solution into a vat, immerse the silk in the solution, and work it well 
therein a little longer than usual; take it out, wring and rinse it, and 
lay it by for further use, in its wet state; put ten buckets of fresh 
water in a kettle, warm it, put the quercitron in a bag, and boil it 
until the strength is extracted. Then immerse the silk in the liquor, 
and work it well therein a quarter of an hour, which will produce a 
handsome lively citron yellow. 

A high-colored Yellow, 

This color may be heightened to its utmost extent of yellow, by 
adding a few half ounces of soda, more or less, according-to the deep 
or bright shades of color desired, to the above yellow liquor; but this 
must not be done until the silk has been completely saturated with the 
yellow liquor of quercitron. 

Orange Color. 

Orange color is obtained by adding to the liquor at the same time 
with the soda, a proportional quantity of annotto, and by working it in 
this liquor until the desired color has been obtained. 

Pale Yellow, or Straio Color. 

Take less alum and quercitron, and dispense altogether with the 
«oda and sinnotto. 



209 [ 175 ] 

Buff. 



To produce the many different shades of this color, proceed with 
the quercitron in the same manner as directed in the dying of the same 
colors with turmeric and weld, (dier's weed. ) But you must bear in 
mind that one pound of the quercitron will produce as much as ten 
pounds of either the turmeric or weld. 

^ very lively glossy Yellow. 

If you desire to increase the above yellow to its most lively and 
glossy hue, take, instead of the alum, a solution of tin, dissolved in & 
mixture of three parts of the spirits of salt, and one part of aquafortis. 
This solution must be mixed with twenty times its own quantity of 
Water, and the silk is to be prepared in a solution of alum in the usual 
way; but it is not necessary to rinse it, and may be colored immedi- 
ately. The solution of tin may be preserved for other purposes, 

%d Turkish Blue. 

Take 21 ounces of cochineal, 
10 do of aquafortis, 
li do of English tin, and 
^ lb. of alum. 

The silk must first be colored in a keep, to a medium blue. This 
being done, take a kettle containing ten buckets of water, put into it 
two and a half ounces of cochineal, and boil it well for the space of 
ten minutes. 

During the above process, dissolve the tin in the aquafortis, according 
to art; pour the solution, together with a quarter of a pound of alum, 
into the above-mentioned kettle, with ten buckets of water. Stir this 
liquor well, and immerse the silk in it, and work it well therein for 
about three-quarters of an hour, during which time it must be kept 
at a steady, slow, continued boil; then take it out, rinse, wring it, fix 
it on the wringing post, wring and beat it well, which will restore it 
to its natural gloss again. 

Note. — If you do not like to make use of the aquafortis in the above process, you 
may substitute a quarter of a pound of cream of tartar, and increase the quantify oP 
alum from a quarter to a half pound. 

J2 real Pink. 

Take 15 lbs. of safflower, 

15 quarts of strong vinegar, 
I of an ounce of oil of vitrioj; 
1 lb. 14 oz. potash, and 
4 ounces of cream of tartar. 

Put the 15 lbs. of safflower in a bag, tie it tight, immerse it forty- 
eight hours in running water; take it out. during thjs time, ev^rv six 

27 



[ 175 ] iilO 

hours; tread it well, until all the yellow matter has been worked ofUtj' 
examine it at the expiration of the above time, to see whether it has 
lost all its yellow coloring matter; if it has not, immerse it a few 
hours more into the water; this being done, take it out, put it into a 
vat, and pour six buckets of river water upon it. 

This being done, dissolve one pound fourteen ounces of potash in 
water, and pour the clear part of this liquor on the safflower in the tub; 
mix it well, and set it by, in a. cool place, for six hours. At the expi- 
ration of this time, take out the saffiower with its liquor, run it through 
a sieve into a vat, pour half a bucket of water upon it, and press it 
out, in order to extract all the coloring matter therefrom; pour fifteen 
quarts of vinegar, and three-eighths of an ounce of oil of vitriol into 
the liquor; then take the ten pounds of silk, fix it upon rods, put it 
into this safflower liquor, and work it well therein, for the space of 
four hours; then take it out, rinse it in running water, wring it well, 
and lay it aside for further use, in its wet state. 

Lastly. Dissolve four ounces of cream of tartar in river water, and 
pour the clear part of this solution into a tub, with eight buckets of 
river water; immerse the silk, which has before been colored to a 
light red, in this solution, and work it well therein for a quarter of 
an hour; take it out, wring it and dry it, and you will have a hand- 
some pink. 

Note. — For a pink of a hig-her color, take an additional quantity of safflower; and 
for a lighter, take less than the above prescribed quantity. It will likewise be of 
benefit to add a small quantity of vinegar. Lemon juice, however, is unnecessary.* • 

tfi high-colored Crimson. 

Take 1^ lb. of cochineal, 
1 lb. of galls, 

4 ounces of cream of tartar, and 
2^ lbs. of Roman alum. 

Dissolve two and a half pounds of Roman alum in a kettle, with 
ten buckets of water; pour the clear part of this solution into a vat, 
immerse the silk in it, and work it well therein for the space of four 
hours; then take it out, and rinse it in running water, wring it, and 
lay it by for further use, in its wet state; then put in a kettle containing 
eight buckets of boiling water, the following articles: 

One and a quarter pounds of finely powdered cochineal, one pound 
of finely powdered gall-nuts, and four ounces of cream of tartar. Let 
the whole boil slowly, for the space of fifteen minutes; cool it with 
two buckets of water, work the silk well in the liquor, which must be 
kept in a continual boil, for the space of one hour and- a half; then take 
it out, rinse it, wring it, and let it dry, when the dying will be com- 
pleted. 

* Dr. Cooper says that lemon juice is essential to bring out the pink color of saf- 
flower, by neutralizing the alkufmc liquor in which the plant is steeped. 

[ Cooper on Dicing 



211 [ 175 ] 

For a cheaper color than the foregoing, red.uce the quantity of 
cochineal, from one and a quarter pound to ten ounces, and substitute, 
for the remainder, three pounds of perslo;* and proceed with these 
materials, in the same manner as above directed. This color will 
differ from that of the first described process, in no other respect than 
that it receives somewhat more of a blueish cast. 

A handsome Crimson. 

Take 3 lbs. of Roman alum, 
\ ounce of argol,t 
i lb. of East India galls, 
25 ounces of cochineal. 

Heat eight buckets of rain water in a kettle, lukewarm; dissolve 
three pounds of Roman alum therein, take out the solution, and put 
it into a vat, immerse the silk in the solution, and work it well therein 
for the space of eight hours. 

Take it out at the expiration of this time, wring it lightly, and lay 
it by for further use, in its wet state. 

To complete this color, heat eight buckets of well or spring water, 
until it begins to boil, put into it the following articles: half an ounce 
of argol, and half a pound of finely pounded East India galls; let the 
whole of these articles boil well for about ten minutes, and run the li- 
quor through a sieve, into a pail; then pour the liquor back into the 
kettle, and put into it twenty-five ounces of pulverized cochineal: let 
it boil ten minutes more, cool the liquor with half a bucket of water; 
immerse the silk in this liquor, and work it well therein for the space 
of two hours, during which time the liquor must be kept at a continual 
boil. This being done, take it out, rinse it well, wring it strongly, 
and dry it. 

Then take a kettle with ten buckets of spring Or well water, and 
heat it so that you may bear your hand in it; work the silk well in 
this w^ater for half an hour, then take it out, wring and dry it. By 
this process we obtain a very handsome crimson. 

Note. — An ounce, instead of half an ounce of arg'ol may be used; but this is left 
entirely to the judgment of the dier, \vheth<ir found necessary or not. If tliis crim- 
son be desired less of a red, and not so handsome, proceed with the cocliineal; and 
the quantity prescribed above may be reduced to eighteeu ounces. The proceiss 
must be, in this case, the same as above directed. 

A deep Bed, 

Take I lb. of fine galls, 
2\ lbs. of alum, 

h lb. of composition, and 
5 lbs. of madder. 

* The'cudbear of the English diers. — Editor. 

j- Red argol is the tartar from red wine. White argol is the impure deposit^ from 
white wines. Cream of tartar is pure argol. — Euitoh. 



[ 175 ] 212. 

Put into a kettle eight buckets of water, and one pound of fine galls; 
let it boil about fifteen minutes, or until the strength is extracted; run 
it through a sieve into a vat, steep the silk in this decoction, and work 
it well therein for about two hours: after which, take it out, rinse, and 
dry it. Then put into a kettle eight buckets of water, with two and 
a half pounds of alum, and half a pound of the composition: let these 
be properly united with the water; pour the liquor into a vat, steep 
the silk in the solution, and work it well therein for the space of four 
hours: take it out, rinse, and lay it by, in its wet state, for further use. 

Lastly. To complete this color, put in a kettle ten buckets of water, 
add five pounds of madder, and work the silk well in this liquor, un- 
til it begins to boil; then take it out, rinse, and dry it. 

%fi real Brown. 

Take 6 ounces of annotto, 

1 lb. of potash, 
3 lbs. of alum, 

5 oz. of fine galls, 
i oz. of cream of tartt^r, 

2 oz. of turmeric, and 
10 oz. of cochineal. 

Boil a kettle with ten buckets of water, powder six ounces of an- 
notto, and put it together with a pound of potash, into the kettle; boil 
for a quarter of an hour, pour the liquor through a sieve into a tub, 
immerse the silk, and work it well in the liquor for the space of two 
hours; then take it out, rinse, wring, and dry it. x\fter this, pour" 
eight buckets of fresh water into a kettle, dissolve three pounds of 
alum therein; then put the solution in a vat, steep the dried yellow 
silk, and work it well therein for the space of three hours; then take 
it out, wring, and lay it by, wet, for further use. 

Boil a kettle with eight buckets of water, put into it ten ounces of 
cochineal, and let it boil for about ten minutes; then cool the liquor 
with a bucket of water, and put into it a quarter of a pound of cream 
of tartar, and two ounces of turmeric, and stir the whole well; then 
steep the silk previously alumed, in the liquor, work it well therein 
for the space of two hours; during which time it must be kept at a 
continual boil. Then take it out? rinse in running water, wring, and 
lay it by, in its wet state, for further use. 

This being done, die it in a keep, [die tub] light or dark, as your 
taste may be, or according to the pattern which is laid before you. 

If you do not wish to make use of the keep, or, as is often the case 
in small dying establishments, should you not possess one, you may 
apply the indigo coloring. 

You may likewise color it in the liquor of logwood, which will 
render it equally handsome, but not of so lasting a color. 



213 [ 175 ] 

%fi real Crimson, in another way. 

Take 2h lbs. of Roman alum, 
2 lbs. of fine galls, 
1 lb. 4 oz. of cochineal, 
^ lb. of argol, and 
8 oz. of spirits of ammonia. 

Take a kettle with eight buckets of water, put into it two pounds 
of fine galls, boil for a quarter of an hour; run the liquor through a sieve 
into a pail, steep the silk in the liquor, and work it well therein for 
the space of four hours; take it out, rinse, wring and dry it. 

After this, take a kettle with eight buckets of water, and dissolve in 
it two pounds of Roman alum; pour it into a vat, steep the silk in the 
solution of alum, and work it well for the space of four hours in the 
same; then take it out, wring it, and lay it by, in a wet state, for fur^ 
ther use. 

To complete the color, pour six buckets of water in a kettle; add one 
pound and four ounces of fine cochineal, a quarter of a pound of argol, 
and eight ounces of spirits of ammonia; let all boil well together for 
about ten minutes, then cool the liquor with two buckets of water: 
work the silk in it for two hours; during which time it must be kept 
boiling continually: then take it out, suspend it on the rods over a vat, 
pour the liquor from the kettle into it, and continue to work the silk 
in the liquor until it has become cool; take it out, rinse, and dry it in 
the shade. 

By following the above directions you will obtain a very handsome 
crimson. 

To turn this expensive cochineal liquor to all possible advantage, 
(for it will still have retained some good coloring matter,) pour the 
above used alum liquor into it, and heat it again; which will enable 
you to color many lighter shades, from the rich peach blossom down 
to the lightest lilac color. Having used it for this purpose, you may 
take more or less of silk of a yellow ground, and color it in it, which 
will receive a reddish yellow from it. 

A handsome Red, 

Take 8 oz. of annotto, 
1| lbs. of potash, 
2h lbs. of alum, 
6 lbs. of Brazil wood, 

5 buckets of sharp vinegar, and 

6 ounces of composition, p. 191, 192. 

Boil a kettle with eight buckets of water, and put in it eight ounces 
of annotto, powdered as fine as possible; add one pound and a half of 
potash; let the whole boil well for a quarter of an hour, and pour the 
liquor through a sieve into a vat. Steep the silk in this liquor, and 
work it well for two hours, after which take it out, rinse, wring, and 
dry it. 



[ 175 3 ^14 

Then dissolve one pound and a half of alum in a kettle with eight 
huckets of water; potir this solution into a vat, fix your silk upon rods, 
and work it well therein for two hours; then take it out, wring and dry- 
it. 

When the silk is completely dry, steep it in warm water, until it 
has become properly soaked. Then take it out, wring, and lay it by, 
wet, for further use. 

This being done, pour into a vat five buckets of sharp vinegar, and 
six pounds of Brazil wood, and let it stand for the space of forty-eight 
hours: then take the liquor out of the vat, and pour it into a kettle; let 
it boil for the space of ten minutes; then pour it through a sieve, into a 
vat, and throw the parts remaining in the sieve into the kettle again; 
pour three buckets of water upon it, let it boil well for a quarter of an 
hour, and add the liquor thereof to the other Brazil wood liquor in the 
vat. 

Pour six ounces of the composition into this liquor of Brazil wood, 
and stir it well; steep the silk previously soaked in warm water, in the 
liquor, and work it well therein for the space of two hours. Examine, 
at the expiration of this time, whether the liquor still contains any 
coloring matter; if so, take it out, pour it into the kettle again, work 
the silk another time therein, during which it must be kept moderate- 
ly warm; then take it out, rinse it in running water, wring, and 
hang it up to dry. By observing the whole of the above process you 
will obtain a very handsome red. By using eight buckets of vinegar 
instead of five, the color will be considerably improved; and by dis- 
pensing with the composition altogether, the color will become darker. 

Lastly: If you desire to have this color of a darker and fiery hue, 
add two pounds of Brazil wood, and one pound of composition, to the 
above quantity, and proceed in the same way as above directed. 

TO COLOR SILK CITRON YELLOW WITH QUERCITRON. 

Take 21 lbs. of alum, 

-4 lb. of sugar of lead,* 

2 oz. of chalk, and 

3 lbs. of quercitron. 

Take a kettle with eight buckets of water, dissolve in it two and a 
half pounds of alum ; pour it into a vat, and let it become cold; add to 
it a quarter of a pound of sugar of lead, and stir it well, then put into it 
two ounces of chalk, stir it well, and continue the stirring, at proper in- 
tervals, for the space of twelve hours, and set it by to settle. Pour 
off" the liquor into a vat, but be careful not to disturb the sediment at 
the bottom: steep the silk in the liquor, and work it well therein for 
the space of six hours; then take it out, wring and lay it by, wet, for 
further use. 

After this, take a kettle with eight buckets of water, put into it 
three pounds of quercitron bark, and let it boil for the space of three 

* Acetate of lead. 



215 [ 175 3 

quarters of an hour; pour it through a sieve into a vat, steep the silk, 
which has been saturated in the foregoing liquor, composed of alum, 
sugar of lead and chalk, in the quercitron liquor, and work it well 
for the space of an hour; then take it out, rinse, wring, and dry it. 

If you desire a higher colored citron yellow than the above, add 
another pound of quercitron to the above quantity, and proceed in the 
following manner: 

Saturate the silk, as above directed, in a liquor of alum, sugar of 
lead and chalk; then take a kettle with eight buckets of water, boil 
two pounds of quercitron therein, for the space of three quarters of an 
hour, and pour the liquor through a sieve into a vat; steep the silk, 
and work it well therein for the space of two hours; after which, take 
it out, wring and dry it. This will have given the silk the best of 
grounds for a good yellow color. After this, take another kettle with 
eight buckets of water, put into it two more pounds of quercitron bark, 
and boil it for the space of three quarters of an hour: then pour it 
through a sieve into a vat, and work the previously colored and dried 
silk in the same, for the space of two hours; then take it out, rinse, 
wring, and dry it. 

%$. high-colored and deep Citron Yellow. 

Take \\ lb. alum, 

3 oz. of sugar of lead, 

\\ oz. of chalk, and 

8 lbs. of French berries. 

Dissolve in a kettle v/hich contains eight buckets of water, one 
pound and a half of alum, pour the solution into a vat, or, which is 
better, into a cask,* and let it cool. Put into it three ounces of sugar 
of lead, stir it well with a rake, add one and, an half ounces of finely 
powdered chalk, and stir the whole well again; and continue the stirring 
every hour, for twelve hours. But, after the last stirring, the rake 
must be taken out of it, to prevent the sediment from being disturbed, 
and then let it stand twelve hours. At the expiration of this time, 
draw off the liquor; but be careful not to disturb the sediment, which 
would otherwise create stains that are diflicult to remove; pour the 
liquor, thus drawn off, into a vat, work the silk well in it for the space 
of four hours; after which, take it out, wring and dry it; then moisten 
it with warm water, rinse it in running water, wring it, and lay it by 
wet, for further use; then take a kettle with eight buckets of water, 
and at the same time bruise eight pounds of French berries in a mor- 
tar; put them into the kettle, and let them boil for half an hour; then 
take out the liquor, and run it through a sieve into a vat. Steep the 
silk in the liquor, and work it well therein for half an hour; take it 
out, wring and dry it; this will produce a handsome citron yellow. 

*This cask raust have a spicket, about a hand's brcadlh ^vovi\ the bottorr, for the 
jfurpose of drawing* of!" the liquor. 



[ 175 3 '2ie 

With the above used alum solution and French berry liquor^ you 
may, without any other addition, color a brighter citron yellow. The 
same solution may likewise be applied, with turmeric or weld, in dying 
a yellow. 

Jl Nankeen. 

Take 2 lbs. of fine galls, 
li oz. annotto, 
4 oz. of potash, and 
i lb. of soap. 

Put one pound of finely powdered galls in a kettle of eight buckets 
of water, and boil it about ten minutes, then take out the liquor, and 
run it through a sieve into a vat. 

While thus employed, let half a pound of soap be dissolved in a 
bucket of warm water, and pour the solution into the liquor of the 
galls. 

Then put into a crock of water one ounce of annotto and four 
ounces of potash; boil for half an hour, add the one half of it to the 
liquor of the galls in the vat, and stir the whole well ; steep the silk 
in the liquor, and work it well therein for a quarter of an hour. Ex- 
amine the silk, and should it not have the necessary redness, add as 
much of the annotto liquor to it as you may deem necessary, to give 
the color the desired tint. Then put the silk in again, and work it 
well for a quarter of an hour; take it out, rinse and dry it. 

The nankeen-colored silk must not remain long without being rins- 
ed, as this would create stains in it. 

«/2 handsome Turkish Blue. 

Take 11 lb. of alum, 

2^ oz. of cochineal, 
2 lb. of composition, 
f of an ounce of indigo, and 
3 oz. of oil of vitriol. 

The silk, after being boiled in soap and water, must be rinsed in 
running water, and then wrung and well beaten. This being done, 
it must be colored to a handsome light blue, in a cold or warm keep; 
then rinse it in running water, wring and dry it. 

As soon as the silk has become properly dry, it must be moistened 
in warm water, wrung and laid by, wet, for further use. 

Dissolve in a kettle with eight buckets of water, one and a quarter 
pounds of alum, pour the solution into a vat, steep the silk in it, and 
work it well therein for the space of an hour; take it out, wring, and 
lay it aside, in its wet state, for further use. 

Lastly: boil a kettle with eight buckets of water, and put into it two 
and a half ounces of cochineal: let it boil for about ten minutes; cool 
the liquor with a bucket of w^ater, and add half a pound of the sola- 



21? [ 175 ] 

tion of tin, and three quarters of an ounce of indigo, which has been 
previously dissolved in three ounces of oil of vitriol, and stir the 
whole well. Immerse the si4k colored blue in the cochineal liquor, 
work it well therein until the liquor begins to boil, let it boil another 
hour, during which time the silk must however be continually work- 
ed: it must then be taken out, rinsed, wrung, and dried. 

If you desire this Turkish blue to incline more to a red, increase 
the quantity of the cochineal; if the contrary, take less. 

%fi handsome Green, 

Take 2 lbs. of alum, and 

4 lbs. of quercitron bark. 

Dissolve in a kettle, with eight buckets of water, two pounds of 
alum; then pour it into a tub, and set it by until wanted. 

While engaged in preparing the above solution, the silk must be 
colored in a cold keep to a handsome light blue, and, after being rinsed 
in a stream, wring and steep it in the above-mentioned alum liquor; 
work it well therein for two hours, then take it out, wring, and lay it 
by, wet, for further use. 

Lastly: put four pounds of quercitron bark in a kettle with eight 
buckets of water, boil it well for the space of thr^e quarters of an hour^ 
and pour the liquor through a sieve into a tub. 

At the same time, and while this is doing, prepare an incorporation 
of indigo and oil of vitriol,'^ and pour the same into the quercitron 
liquor in the tub, and stir the whole well. Steep the silk in this com- 
pounded liquor, and work it well therein for the space of half an hour:' 
then take it out, wring and dry it. 

In case the silk has not attained as handsome a green as desired, add 
a small quantity of turmeric to the yellow liquor, which will assuredly 
have the desired effect. 

At the same time I would recommend not to color the silk too dark 
in the cold keep, as it is very difficult to produce a handsome green 
on a ground which has been spoiled by keeping it in the dark. It is 
therefore more adviseable to have it of too light a color, as you may^ 
in that case, easily regulate the color by adding more of the prepara- 
tion of indigo to the yellow liquor, as circumstances may require. 

Best Bhiey (ultra Marine,) 

The quantity of the necessary ingredients for this color, must be 
regulated according to the quantity of- silk to be colored. • 

Take filings of copper, free from all alloy of . other metals; it is 
best, therefore, to rasp or file ..them yourself, in-order to obtain theni; 
pure. Put these into a glass vessel, pour spirits of salt, [muriatic, 
acid] sufficient to cover them twice as deep as the space they occupy; 
let them stand for the space of twenty -four hours, or as long as nefifes-^- 
sary for the spirits of Salt to attain a \A\ig or deep green color. 

Then pour off the "clear part of the colored spirits of salt into an- 

* The proportions are nine or ten parts of the strong* acid, to one of indigo, at a 
temperature of 100" tQ 112° of Fahrcnlicit's thermometer. — Editor. 

23 



[ 17^ ] 21S 

other glass vessel, add fresh spirits of salt to the copper filings, and 
continue this process until the whole of the copper tilings have heen 
dissohv'^d, when nothing but the earthy and impure parts will remain. 

Mix all these several blue or deep green colored solutions of cop- 
per, and add thereto as much spirits of ammonia as will be necessary 
to saturate the mixture. 

Then moisten the silk in warm water; but be careful to do this in 
.$uch a manner that all parts will be completely and equally soaked; 
then wring it, and steep it in the blue tincture prepared as above di- 
rected; work it therein until it has attained a handsome ultra-marine 
color: then take it out, wring it well, rinse in a stream, and dry it in 
the shade. 

By minutel}^ observing the above process, you will obtain a very 
handsome blue color, but which is not altogether lasting, as it will 
fade by being exposed to the sun, and turn to a greenish tint. 

With the liquor which remains, you may color many other very 
agreeable blue colors; but you must add, at every coloring, a small 
quantity of spirits of ammonia to the liquor, as it would otherwise 
cause the color of the silk died therein, to receive more of a green, 
and less of a blue color, at every succeeding coloring. 

Ji dark Blue. 

Take \\. ounces of indigo, 
I lb. of oil of vitriol, 
li do. of alum, 
4 do. of logwood, 
i do. of alum. 

The greatest attention and accuracy in the process of dying this 
color is necessary. 

Before you proceed to the dying itself, prepare a solution of indigo 
in oil of vitriol, in the manner following: Powder very finely, and 
sift one and a half ounces of indigo, and put three quarters of a pound 
of oil of vitriol in a stone- jar; add the pulverized indigo to it, stir 
the whole well with on earthen pipe stem, or some similar earthen ar- 
ticle, and continue the stirring until the oil of vitriol ceases to ferment; 
the raix'ture having become quiet, set it by for the space of twenty- 
four hours; at the expiration of this time, a little water must be add- 
ed, and tlie whole matter stirred again, by which it will receive, as it 
were, new life and vigor; after which, it must be set away undisturbed, 
unti4' it is to be applied to the dying of the silk. After this, prepare a 
kettle with eight buckets of water, put into it one and a quarter pounds 
of alum, and dissolve it completely therein. This being done, pour 
ihe solution into a vat, steep the silk in the solution, and work it well 
therein for an hour; after \>-iiich, take it out, WTing, and lay it by, 
wet, for further use. 

Put eight buckets of water in a kettle, pour the solution of indigo 
into it, and mix it well, work the silk well in this blue liquor for the 
space of half an hour, then take it out, rinse it in running water, wring 
and lay it by, wet, for further use. J3y this process, the sijk will re- 
ceive a handsomp light blue colqr. 



219 [ 175 ] 

To deepen this blue, or to change it to a dark blue, proceed in the 
.following manner: boil a kettle with sixteen buckets of water, add 
four pounds of logwood, and boil it well for about three quarters of 
an hour; then take out one half of the liquor, and run it through a 
sieve into a vat; let the other half or eight buckets of the same remain 
in the kettle for further use; put into the liquor in the vat, a quarter 
of a pound of alum, which has previously been dissolved in some ves- 
sel; stir the whole well, steep the light blue silk in it, and work it well 
in the liquor a quarter of an hour; then take it out, wring and keep it 
wet for further use, and throw out the liquor as useless. 

Lastly: pour into another vat the remaining eight buckets of the 
logwood liquor left in the kettle, after having first run it through 
a sieves steep the silk in the liquor, and work it well therein for the 
space of half an hour; then take it out, rinse it in running water, 
wring and dry it. By the above process, you will obtain a dark blue, 
in every respect equal to any of the blues which have been colored 
by means of tlie keep. 

The above blue is likewise applicable to the dying of any other 
goods; and not alone in this respect is it of advantage, but it like- 
wise saves you the trouble and expense of preparing a keep for dying 
a small quantity of silk to a dark blue; and if the risk of missing a 
keep, and the consequent loss thereof be taken into consideration, the 
above receipt is of considerable advantage to the dier as well as to 
the manufacturer; particularly as the smallest quantity may be colored 
equal to the coloring of a keep, by reducing the ingredients in pro- 
portion to the quantity of the silk which is to be died. 

Ji handsome Violet Blue, after the maimer of the foregoing. 

Take 1 oz. of indigo, 

2 lb. of oil of vitriol, 
i lb. of alum, 
4 lbs. of logwood, and 
1 lb. Guinea or red wood. 

The indigo must be dissolved in oil of vitriol, as directed in the 
ibregoing receipt, and kept ready for use. 

Dissolve in a kettle, with eight buckets of water, a pound and ono- 
quarter of alum; then pour the solution into a vat, and work the silk 
well therein for the space of one hour; after which time, take it out; 
wring, and keep it in its wet state, for further use. 

Fill a vat with eight buckets of water, put the above-mentioned solu- 
tion of in-digo in it, stir the whole well, work the alum-dressed silk 
therein, for the space of half an hour; then take it out, rinse it in running 
water, wring it, and set it by, wet, for further use. 

Lastly: take a kettle with eight buckets of water, put into it four 
pounds of logwood, and one pound of Guinea or red wood, and boil 
the whole well, for about three-quarters of an hour; then run tlie de- 
coction through a sieve into a vat, steep the bhie colored silk in it, and 
work it well in the same for the space of half an liour; after which 
take it out, rinse it in running water, wring and dry it. 

Note. — I deem it necessary to arid to the lifxuqr of the lofwoqa and vcfl wood, r 
quarter of a pgund gf alum. 



[ 175 ] 220 

c^ deep Red. 

Take 5 oz. of annotto, 
1 lb. of potash, 
2h lbs. of alum, and 
5 lbs. of madder. 

into a kettle with eight buckets of water, put five ounces of madder^ 
ivhich has previously been finely powdered, add thereto a pound of 
potash, boil it well for a quarter of an hour, run it through a sieve into 
SI vat, steep the silk in it, and work it well therein for an hour; then 
take it out, rinse it, and let it dry; dissolve two and a half pounds of 
alum in a kettle, pour the solution into a vat, steep the silk in it, work 
it well therein for two hours, then take it out, wring and dry it. 

Lastly: fill a kettle with eight buckets of water, add five pounds 
of madder, heat it, but do not let it boil ; while this is doing, moisten 
the silk well in warm water, so as that all of it may be equally satu- 
rated with the water; take it out and wring it; then steep it in the 
above prepared lukewarm liquor of madder, work it well therein until 
it begins to boil; let it boil a quarter of an hour longer, during which 
time the silk must be worked continually; then take out, wring, and 
dry it. The above process will produce a very handsome red. 

Ji Green. 

Take li lbs. of alum, 

1 lb. of potash, and 
8 lbs. of turmeric. 

The silk must be first died in a cold keep, to a handsome light 
blue; but caution must be used to lay the color equally throughout the 
whole of the silk, and that no stains remain in any part of it; rinse 
it in running water, wring it, and lay it by wet for further use. 

Immerse the silk in warm water, in such a manner that it will be 
equally and uniformly saturated with the water; then wring it, and 
lay it aside in its wet state for further use. r 

After this, prepare a kettle with eight buckets of water, put into it 
one pound of potash, and one and a quarter pounds of turmeric, and 
let the whole boil well for about ten minutes; then pour the liquor 
through a sieve into a vat, steep the silk in the liquor, and work it well 
therein for the space of half an hour. At the expiration of this time, it 
must be taken out, wrung, and put by for further use, in its wet state. 

Lastly: dissolve a kettle with eight buckets of fresh water, one and 
a quarter pounds of alum, pour the solution into a vat, and work the 
silk well therein for the space of a quarter of an hour, which will 
change it to a "handsome green; then take it out, rinse, wring, and dry 
it in the shade. 



221 C 175 ] 



INDEX 



Abstract and condensed view of tlie art of rearing silkworms, - - 120 

Acid fumig-ations purify tlie air of a laborator}', .... 127-8 

Aluming of silks, .-.,.... igg 

American native yellow dies, ---.-.. igg 
Analysis of tlie leaves of the white mulberry tree, - - - - 50 

Ants, red, great enemies to silkworms, - - - . - 68 

Apparatus for feeding silkworms, by the Rev. Mr. Swa3^e, - , - -56 

Art of rearing silkworms, whole process of - - - - - 71 

Baking of cocoons, - - - - - - - - 141 

Birth and coupling of the silk moth, - - - - - - 108 

Black, to die - - - - - - - . - 199 

process by Vitalis, ----_._ 201 

Blazing fires, utility of, in damp weather, - - - - 89, 96, 123 

Blue, to die - - - - - - - - - 196 

by Raymond, - - - .... 196, 217 

Turkish, - - - - - - - - 209, 216 

Brown, to die - - - - - - - - - 212 

Budding of the mulberry trees, recommended, - - - - 47 

Buff, to die - - - - - - - - - 209 

Bughy, or Tusseh, and Arrindy silkworms of India, - - - - 39 

Cabins, to prepare, for silkworms to spin cocoons, - - - - 98 

Calculation of labor and profit of worms, fed on the leaves from an acre of trees, 

in Connecticut, ..-.-.._ 119 
Carrelet, an apparatus to spin inferior silk, ----- 153 

China, native silkworms of- - - - - - -41 

Chrysalis state of the silkworm; changes into the pupa state, - - - 32 

Cleanliness essential to health of worms, . - ... 97 

Cleansing of silk previous to dying, - - - - - - 182 

Cocoons, construction of -------32 

escape of the worms from them, how effected, - - - 33 

gathering of, - - - - - - - - 105 

selection of those intended for eggs, - - - - 106 

preservation of, ------ - 107 

daily loss of weight of, ----- - 108 

facts respecting, containing healthy, diseased, and dead chrysalides, 114 
weight of various parcels, produce of, from an ounce of eggs, 116-17 

proportion of different qualities of, before and after baking, - 119 

division of, into various qualities, ... - - 136 

to judge of their qualities, ------ 137 

how to kill the chrysalis, - - - - - -139 

by steaming, .----. 139 

by baking in aa oven, - - - - - 141 

royal, perforated, and soufRons, . - - . - 142 

reeling off, apparatus for, and whole mode^of procedure in, - 142 

daily task of reeling, in Italy, . _ . - - 149 

Cradle, indigo, description of the figure of, - - - - - 157 

Crimson, fine, to die, - - - - - - 191, 210, 211, 213 

Crops, two or more, of worms in one season, on rearing, - - -36 

Dandelion will sustain young worms, ------ 63 

Darkness essential when the moths are hatched and coupling, - - - 109 

Disbanding the silk from the reel, on - - . - - 150 

Q9 



[ 175 ] 2^2 



Page 

Diseases of silk worms, ....-.- 125 

from defect of eggs, - - - - - - - 125 

mismanagement of good eggs, ----- 126 

bad air of the district in which silkworms are reared, - - 126 

want of room, - - . - . - - 130 

quality and quantity of food, ----- 130 

change of food, - - - - - - - 131 

peculiar constitution of the air, ----- 132 

sudden changes of temperature, . . . . 133 

particular diseases of --...- 133 

Doubling machine, and cut, - = --.-- 151 

Draw-boy, improvement in, - - - - - • - 164 

Dying of silk; see the various colors, - - - - - - 182 

Early food, to secure - - - - - . - - 125 

Eggs, preparation for hatching, - - - - - - 57 

signs of vivification of the worm, ----- 63 

Eggs, preservation of, - - - - - - - - 112 

number of, in the varieties of silkworms, - - - - 113 

facts relative to the production of, - - - - -115 

produce of silk from an ounce of, - - - - - ' 113 

proportion of to cocoons, ....-- 118 

Evidence, minutes of, on silk, before the House of Commons, - - 180 
Fanshaw's apparatus for spinning, doubling, and twisting, or throwing silk, 

and cut, - - - - -.- - - - 176 

Feeding, frequent, necessary in the fburth and fifth ages of silkworms, 97, 123 

Fires, light blazing fires of shavings, straw, or light wood, useful in damp 

weather, to promote warmth and a circulation of air in the laboratory, 89, 96, 125 

Food, on securing early, for silkworms, . - _ - . 125 

diseases from quantity and quality of - - - - - 130 

change of - - - - - - 131 

table of, for silkworms in different ages, . . - - 181 

tirasserie, a disease of silkworms, - - - - - - 133 

Green, to die ..--...- 192, 217, 220 

Hatching of silkworms, - - - ' - - - - 61 

moths, - - .... 109 

History of silk, - - ..... 17 

in the United States, - - - - - - 21 

natural} of the silkworm, ------ 27 

Hedges, espaliers, or cabins, to prepare ----- 98 

Hot-house for hatching silkworms, ------ 59 

Hurdles, or feeding frames, to clean, - - - - - - 99 

Hygrometer, use of, a simple one described with a cut, - - - 129 
Improvements in silk machinery, - - - . . 155^ 177 

India, East, native silkworms of ------ 36 

Indigo blue vat, to prepare - - - - - - -189 

Laboratory for silkworms, construction of - - - - - 54 

newly hatched worms, - .... 68 

Leaves, young seedlings of, not proper for old worms, - - - 52 

only to be given to young worms, - - • - -75 

chopping of, deemed necessary, but doubted, - - 75 

importance of picking clean, and without fruit, - - - 81 

old, to be given to worms after the fourth moulting, - - - 91 

quantity consumed in diflTerent ages, by worms from an ounce of eggs, 

(See also the table, p. 180,) - - . . - 114 

calculation of labor and profit from an acre of, in Connecticut, - 119 

should be gathered a few hours before being used, ... 122 

Lettuce, will sustain young worms, - - - - . - 62 

Lig'ht, injurious to silk moths when hatched, and when coupling, - - 109 

Lilac color, -----.-.. 193 

Loom, Sholl's silk, explanation of figure of, ... - - 157 

for weaving figured stuffs, - - _ - - - 166 

for weaving ribbons, - . - ^ , . , 172-3 



223 [ 175 •] 



Page. 

Loom, Jacquart's improved, •• - - - ■ - - 173 

LeBrun's, ........ 174 

De Bergue*s power loom, ------ 175 

Kendall's domestic do. - - - - . - - 176 

Lusette, or Clairette, a disease of silkworms, ----- 134 

Machinery, silk, description of, and references to, - - - 155, 177 

Moths, birth and coupling- of, ------- 108 

darkness necessary for them, ------ 109 

Moulting-, or change of skin in the silkworm, - - - - - 30 

Mulberry trees, on, ........ 42 

red, or American, and varieties of, - - - - - 42 

produce good silk, - - - - - - 43 

white, and culture of, ------ 44 

propagation of, by various methods, - - - - 45 

analysis of the leaves of, - - - - - - 50 

proportion of leaves to an acre, - - - - - 51 

required for various numbers of silkworms, - - 51 

hedges of, to form, ------- 52 

paper, said to be proper for worms in the fifth age, - -53 

black, not equal to the white, for the United States, - -53 

Muscardine, a disease of silkworms, ------ 135 

Nankeen color to die, -------- 216 

Natural history of the silkworm, ------ 27 

Oak leaves useful for sick worms, ...--- 135 

Orange color, to die, - - - - - - - - 208 

Organzine, how to steam the silk intended for, , . - 151, 152 

Passis, a disease of silkworms, - - - - - - 133 

Patents for improved silk machinery, ------ 176 

Plants, aromatic, burning of, useless in a silkworm laboratory, - - 127 

Pink color, to die, - - - - - ' - - - 209 

Plates, explanation of- - - - - -- -155 

Poppy color, to die, ----•--.- 199 

Preparation of silk skeins after reeling, - - - - - 150 

Pupa, what, how different from the chrysalis, - - - - 32 

Quercitron bark, to die with, - - - - - . - 214 

Red color, to die, .-..--- 211, 213, 220 

Reeling sUk from cocoons, process of, - - - - - 143 

Reel, silk, of Piedmont, described, ------ 155 

to wind the skeins from bobbins, - - - - - 153 

Ribbon looms, improved, ------- 172 

Silkworms, natural history of, - - - - - - - 27 

duration of the life of, - - - - . - - 34 

varieties of, - - - - - - 35 

of India, - - - - - -- -36 

China, --------41 

North America, - - - - - - 42 

South America, , . - - . - 41 

whole process of hatching and rearing the common kind - 61 

appearance of, when newly hatched, - - - - 64 

removal of, from the room where hatched, - - - 69 

rearing of, in their four first stages, - - - - 71 

cleanliness and fresh ah' essential to their health, - - 54, 97 

noise stops their spinning the cocoons, - - - - 104 

preparations for their rising on the cabins, - - - 99 

separation of those which will not rise, - - - - 102 

do not degenerate in the United States if well kept, - - 112 

abstract and condensed view of the art of rearing, - - 120 

diseases of, - - - - - - - 125 

Space in square feet, occupied by worms, from an ounce of eggs, in different 

ages, (see also the table, page 180,) - - - - - 113 

Steam, apparatus for heating water by, - - - - - 138 



C 175 3 224 



Page. 
Stove, essential to the regular hatching of silkworms, - - - 60 

Stove and basin, for heating water, dimensions of, * , . . 13/ 

Sulphuring silk, of, - - - - . - . . 18T 

Silk, history of, - - - - - - - - If 

in the United States, - - - - - - 21 

weight of a single fibre of 506 feet, - - f - - 114 

quantities of, yielded by various parcels of cocoons, . - - J16 

preparations for reeling, - - - . >. - - 135 

disbanding of from the reel, -._,.. I50 

preparation of, after disiianding from the reel, - - - - 150 

waste, and inferior quauties to spin, ... - - 152 

reel, description of, and figure, - - - - - - 155 

to wind from the skeins on bobbins, ^ . , . 158 

improved machinery for weaving, . - « . 172, 177-8 

to spin double and twist, apparatus for, ----- 178 

watering of, to prevent, - -- -- - -179 

to cleanse, previously to dying, - . . - - - 182 

ungumming and boiiing for white, - - - - - 184 

boiling of, which is to be died, - - - - - - 185 

sewing and twist, mode of making in Connecticut, - _ - 154 

'I'emperature proper for hatching eggs of silkworms, - - -65 

for silkworms in various stages, - - - - - 72 

high, im.proper for hatching the eggs, - - - - 72 

bad effects of a great or low in the fifth age, - - - 96 

of the water, for reeling cocoons, causes which regulate it, - 139 

Terhoevens' American winding and twisting machine, - . - 178 

Thermometer, essential in the hatching- and rearing of silkworms, - - 58 

Throwstmg machine, figure of explained, - - - - - 159 

Tramming engine, figure of explained, - - - - - 161 

Tray, portable, cut of one: See table, p. 180, - - - - 61 

Tripes, a disease of silkwomas, - - - - - - 135 

Twist, how made in Connecticut, - - - - - - 154 

Utensils useful in hatching and rearing silkworms, (and table, p. 180,) - 60, 61 

Vapor emitted from silkworms and litter, - - - - • 104 

Varieties in silkworms, ....... 35 

in India, --------36 

in China, -.------41 

in the United States, and South America, - - - - 41,42 

Ventilators requisite in the windows, floor, and ceiling of the laboratory, - 54 
Violet, with logwood, to die, - - - . . - - 193 

' > Brazil wood and logwood, to die, - . - - 194 

Warping machine, - - - - - - - - 152 

Watering of silks, without the use of a knee roll, method of preventing, - 179 
Weaving of silks, improvements in, ------ 178 

Weights of various parcels of cocoons, -. = - - - H^ 

W^hite, different shades of, ------ - 186 

Winding, doubling, and twisting apparatus, . - - 167, 169, 176, 177 

Yellows, a disease of silkworms, ------ 134 

Yellow, on silk dying of, in hanks, ----- 194, 197, 205 

citron, --.---.. 206 

otlier processes, - - - - 206, 207, 208, 214, 215 

dies in the United States, - - ~ - - - 198 




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